<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><rss xmlns:dc="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xmlns:content="http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/" xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom" version="2.0" xmlns:itunes="http://www.itunes.com/dtds/podcast-1.0.dtd" xmlns:googleplay="http://www.google.com/schemas/play-podcasts/1.0"><channel><title><![CDATA[The Old Norse Linguist]]></title><description><![CDATA[Dive into the boundless world of language learning]]></description><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com</link><image><url>https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Eh0Q!,w_256,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5aa33c11-1104-46bb-be12-8b4f4e1067a4_720x720.png</url><title>The Old Norse Linguist</title><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com</link></image><generator>Substack</generator><lastBuildDate>Wed, 12 Aug 2026 11:25:30 GMT</lastBuildDate><atom:link href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/feed" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml"/><copyright><![CDATA[Galois]]></copyright><language><![CDATA[en]]></language><webMaster><![CDATA[oldnorse@substack.com]]></webMaster><itunes:owner><itunes:email><![CDATA[oldnorse@substack.com]]></itunes:email><itunes:name><![CDATA[Galois]]></itunes:name></itunes:owner><itunes:author><![CDATA[Galois]]></itunes:author><googleplay:owner><![CDATA[oldnorse@substack.com]]></googleplay:owner><googleplay:email><![CDATA[oldnorse@substack.com]]></googleplay:email><googleplay:author><![CDATA[Galois]]></googleplay:author><itunes:block><![CDATA[Yes]]></itunes:block><item><title><![CDATA[Swotting like a machine]]></title><description><![CDATA[It goes without saying that the best use of a college course is still, from our perspective, its diversion for the purpose of linguistic improvement. So much so that higher education, which our advancing age does not deter us from, belongs, on the same footing as reading the newspaper or watching documentaries, to that set of things which it would not cross our mind to undertake in our mother tongue and independently of such a parasitic benefit. By the measure of the somewhat devious objective we set for it, the semester of cramming is of unmatched efficiency. It is volume fine-tuning catalyzed by a well-circumscribed syllabus, an abundant corpus of premium quality with respect to language inoculation, and a deadline.]]></description><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/swotting-like-a-machine</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/swotting-like-a-machine</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Galois]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 23 Jul 2026 16:14:20 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uxTN!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcedbe75-9934-48a6-b24a-e3ec216843eb_4080x3060.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Just under a year after <a href="https://learnfinnishlikeamachine.substack.com/p/13-enlightenment">our very first newspaper crossed through</a> in <em><a href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/">learning Norwegian like a machine</a></em>, we gave our statistical fine-tuning a boost by following, and working diligently for two months, a philosophy course at university. It goes without saying that the best use of a college course is still, from our perspective, its diversion for the purpose of linguistic improvement. So much so that higher education, which our advancing age does not deter us from, belongs, on the same footing as reading the newspaper or watching documentaries, to that set of things which it would not cross our mind to undertake in our mother tongue and independently of such a parasitic benefit. By the measure of the somewhat devious objective we set for it, the semester of cramming is of unmatched efficiency. It is <em><a href="https://learnfinnishlikeamachine.substack.com/p/14-volume-biology">volume fine-tuning</a></em> catalyzed by a well-circumscribed syllabus, an abundant corpus of premium quality with respect to language inoculation, and a deadline. </p><p>It is difficult to follow young people who decide, at the age of passions, to devote themselves to the dry, sedentary, debilitating, and nowadays perfectly unproductive activity that is following a university program. Naturally, the verb <em>to</em> <em>decide</em> carries a connotation of independence and free will that is here perfectly out of place: blind as a newborn, the undergraduate has been carried there by a torrent of exogenous pressures, the injunctions of a family which, with almost two decades' delay, fears for the future of the individual engendered, the ubiquitous spectacle of the American way of life of suburban subdivisions, the frenetic itch of social media some of which specialize, through the unbuttoned exhibition of <em><span>&#171; </span>success stories<span> &#187;</span></em>, each head in a circle, in the channeling of ambitions and computational capacities toward the great universal multi-storied organization, its tracks and brands bringing variations of at most dialectal order, of managerial work on swivel chairs. One sees them then in libraries, a club sandwich in the left hand, a mouse in the right, overextending their back over a computer open before them, as they apply to the multi-windowed content of the semester the same galvanic hopping that pervasive pocket electronics have inculcated in them from an early age. They will learn to pass the exam while slipping through the slightest drops of knowledge and <em>know-how</em> that the hasty wringing-out of subjects cookie-cut from the great body of science might still have been suspected of letting trickle down. A certain number of professionalizing happenings, from the solemn role-play seminar to the brazen <em>petits fours</em> evening sponsored by major corporations, will instill in them the progressive awareness that the way out of their misery depends on the alignment of points on a <em>curriculum vitae</em> and the rapid embracing of the managerial discourse that prevails wherever it&#8217;s possible to earn money, that earning money, precisely, happens through mere acquiescence to drinking the managerial discourse to the source, until total imbibition, to performing the preposterous choreography, the successful coercion of which can be qualified as a veritable <em>tour de force</em>, which consists in going around in circles in offices while putting on <em>grand airs</em>, obeying abstruse protocols intended solely to lull people to sleep, ultimately, in simulating to perfection the activity one will not carry out, or with a slowness that defies every chart of human neuronal activity, all of it in a bucket of crabs. The managerial edifice has as its main intention, albeit a <em>secret of Polichinelle</em>, quiet conservatism: its lackeys, akin to university books in non-challenging languages, whose natural vocation is to be used as table shims, keep it in place by fossilizing inside their alveolus and not making waves. That&#8217;s what the students&#8217; little pink, fresh hands, their minds numb, are getting ready to enlist in as they click away on their computers. Fortunately for the higher education industry, whose servants&#8217; second most ardent wish, after the earliest possible retirement, is no doubt the preservation of their apostolate and, to that end, of their religion, even informing students of their already written destiny would, of course, not dissuade them. For, we confirm that everyday in <em>learning languages like a machine</em>, the human is obstinately difficult to educate other than the hard way, that is, through volume exposure to reality and firsthand trial and error. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uxTN!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcedbe75-9934-48a6-b24a-e3ec216843eb_4080x3060.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uxTN!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcedbe75-9934-48a6-b24a-e3ec216843eb_4080x3060.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uxTN!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcedbe75-9934-48a6-b24a-e3ec216843eb_4080x3060.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uxTN!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcedbe75-9934-48a6-b24a-e3ec216843eb_4080x3060.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uxTN!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcedbe75-9934-48a6-b24a-e3ec216843eb_4080x3060.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uxTN!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcedbe75-9934-48a6-b24a-e3ec216843eb_4080x3060.jpeg" width="1456" height="1092" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uxTN!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcedbe75-9934-48a6-b24a-e3ec216843eb_4080x3060.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uxTN!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcedbe75-9934-48a6-b24a-e3ec216843eb_4080x3060.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uxTN!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcedbe75-9934-48a6-b24a-e3ec216843eb_4080x3060.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uxTN!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcedbe75-9934-48a6-b24a-e3ec216843eb_4080x3060.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Bay of Oslo from Bygd&#248;y, Oslo, Norway</figcaption></figure></div><p>It is always moving to brush past this student body visibly suffering from lack of exercise and natural light, only half-duped, and, consequently, intermittently anxious, quite rightly, that their future looms as rather carceral. Come to think of it, it is the serenity of being too old for this kind of doom, joined with a compassionate tenderness for our own youth that this headless cohort evokes. Ultimately, if their behavior would be perfectly irrational were they to have laid bare before their eyes the precise workings of the social organization and the tricks of power, the psychology of the student, as they toil punily in the dark, is an open book. To enlighten them is vain, and, <a href="https://learnfrenchlikeamachine.substack.com/p/1-universal-instruction">following the reasoning of </a><em><a href="https://learnfrenchlikeamachine.substack.com/p/1-universal-instruction">Des Esseintes </a></em><a href="https://learnfrenchlikeamachine.substack.com/p/1-universal-instruction">in </a><em><a href="https://learnfrenchlikeamachine.substack.com/p/1-universal-instruction">&#192; Rebours</a></em> which, by its relevancy, we cannot refrain from citing, perfectly inexpedient.</p><p><em>&#8212; Ce serait tout de m&#234;me dommage, se dit-il, car en agissant de la sorte, j&#8217;avais r&#233;alis&#233; la parabole la&#239;que, l&#8217;all&#233;gorie de l&#8217;instruction universelle qui [&#8230;] s&#8217;ing&#233;nie, au lieu de crever d&#233;finitivement et par compassion les yeux des mis&#233;rables, &#224; les leur ouvrir tout grands et de force, pour qu&#8217;ils aper&#231;oivent autour d&#8217;eux des sorts imm&#233;rit&#233;s et plus cl&#233;ments, des joies plus lamin&#233;es et plus aigu&#235;s et, par cons&#233;quent, plus d&#233;sirables et plus ch&#232;res.</em></p><p><em>&#8212; It would be a pity all the same, he said to himself, for in acting thus, I had realized the lay parable, the allegory of universal instruction which [...] contrives, instead of definitively and out of compassion putting out the eyes of the wretched, to open them wide and by force, so that they may perceive around them undeserved and more clement fates, joys more refined and more keen and, consequently, more desirable and more dear.</em></p><p>(Huysmans, 1884)</p><p>One notes that, paradoxically, the nefarious effect Huysmans here assigns to universal instruction, that of opening the eyes of the wretched, is diametrically antithetical to the one we credit to higher education: closing them, so that they may rubber-stamp their being put into production on the great logistical chain of the world. Higher education does have its virtues.</p><div><hr></div><p>At any rate, to us, it does, who have not come here to seek blindness, but rather <em>volume</em> learning material. Yet, the university we find is not the one we briefly visited in our earliest youth, and, in certain regards, its novelties rack us. The mechanisms of enchantment it deploys mirror exactly those of the workplace or entertainment mediated by pocket electronics: gamified, almost fun, automatic and <em>no-life</em>, irresistible, out-of-pace with natural mind activity, and, probably for that reason, inherently irritating. So much so that, ironically, hierarchies get ironed out by the very tricks that power wields to maintain itself. Students, teachers, and laypeople, among them the white collars, all end up managed through the same kind of metrics that they are nudged to run after: <em>credit scores</em> in the ones, <em>h-scores</em>, <em>key performance indicators</em> and <em>likes</em> in the others. All in the pot! Enrolling at university, even as a guest student, means you&#8217;re agreeing to at least dip your toes in the broth. Of course, you can keep your guard up and vow not to let them walk all over you, but when the devices result from decades of groundwork by top-notch, high-priced scientific collaborators optimizing for user retention, resisting them is an absolutely vain wish. The poster children of such civil systems, social media and electronic terminals, whose toxicity and expediency to induce addiction no longer needs proving, find their scholar counterpart in the requisite personal account that&#8217;s soon to become the student&#8217;s little burrow. In short, the novelty lies in the total digitization, which imposes on you all the epileptogenic paraphernalia, even should you prefer to do without it. Which forces by design the study experience through a peremptory prism: <em>dull conforming</em>. At this spectacle, it is by a hair&#8217;s breadth that emotion does not give way in us to gloom. And it&#8217;s willingly that we pervert this great soul-grinding machine to strictly contemplative ends.</p><p>Through a conjunction of spatiotemporal circumstances with which we shall bore no one, we find ourselves enrolled in a Norwegian <em>philosophy</em> program. We begin by devouring the three hundred pages of the reference book that distributes across three parts, <em>Ethics</em>, <em>Metaphysics</em> and <em>Epistemology</em>, some thirty classical and more contemporaneous selected pieces. While the exam does not concern us as padding for a <em>curriculum</em> which we have long since slam-dunked into the wastepaper basket, we are aware of its catalytic powers. The contemplator in the starting blocks. It includes a <em>take-home</em> essay that delectably diverts us from our objective, as we <a href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/brevveksling-mellom-rene-descartes">plunge into an anglophone exegete of Descartes</a>, and a sit-down exam essay, moreover difficult to rig. Rather, laboriously riggable, with a labor perfectly in line with our objective. We thus spend two months preparing our rigging of the exam, several hours a day, at the <em>Nasjonalbiblioteket, </em>in the reading room on the second floor (in fact the first, Norwegian buildings being systematically one floor lower than they claim, as they number from one instead of ground floor), which overlooks <em>Observatoriegata</em>. The essay must tackle one or a few open questions on a theme from the syllabus, for example, <em>what are classical debates in metaethics</em>; <em>how can we explain psychology through natural selection</em>; or <em>what are Hobbes' and Locke's views on the state of nature</em>. Simply, we excavate the paradigmatic questions from each chapter and craft their answers in full prose, in Norwegian, taking care all the way to the literary finish. The occasion is too good to pass up. We read <em>in extenso</em> the Norwegian versions of the works from which the syllabus extracts are drawn. Aristotle's <em>Nicomachean Ethics</em>, Plato&#8217;s theory of Forms, the greatest hits of contract theory. We read, we glean, we build. A large file pieces together all our fragments, and when it takes shape, we work it over. We refine, revisit. Blank page, new question, attempt at an answer in three points, drafting in full. We render below one of <a href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/t/exphilnerd">the minimalist essays put together</a> that way. <em>Virtue and happiness</em>. </p><p><em>In the </em>Nicomachean Ethics<em>, Aristotle argues that there is a connection between acting morally and being happy. How are these connected, according to Aristotle?</em></p><p>An essay universally comprises bricks and mortar. The bricks are the raw ideas, the arguments, which one energetically brews in their logical pipes, excavates from the bric-a-brac of memories, or shamelessly parasitizes off others, like the cuckoo that eats the eggs of a random brood to find the energy for its own procreation. The mortar is the sophistry one tosses in small trowelfuls around the bricks to hold them together, especially where the joints creak. A kind of inevitable structural cosmetics. The better the trowelwork, the more smoothly the little hitches slip through. The Norwegian university essay has no use, it seems to us, for the pomp of the dialectic (<em>thesis-antithesis-synthesis</em>) wanted elsewhere: the bricks shall be of the known-fact variety, in the vein of reading comprehension checks or ophthalmological exams. Everything will be in the mortar. </p><p>We gradually bring about the conclusion:</p><p><em>Hos den vise sammenfaller lykke, dyd og nytelse &#8211; ja, han oppn&#229;r kvintessensen av hver av de tre. Det er oppdragelsen som f&#248;rer til &#229; finne nytelse i dydig handling, den handlingen som kroner lykke.</em></p><p><em>In the wise person, happiness, virtue and pleasure coincide - indeed, he attains the quintessence of each of the three. It is upbringing that leads to finding pleasure in virtuous action, the action that crowns happiness.</em></p><p>First, the notion of continence shows that Aristotelian virtue is all in the character: virtuous behavior demands effort from the continent person, while it comes naturally to the virtuous one. Virtuous conduct holds to the middle way, equidistant from the extremes. Morality according to Aristotle gives no sieve for discriminating virtuous action: but when a kind of action is extremely bad, it is known. </p><p><em>Noen lidenskaper eller handlinger kjenner ingen middelvei, og selve navnet avsl&#248;rer at de er ekstreme, overdrevne eller mangelfulle, for eksempel</em> &#171;ondskap, skaml&#248;shet, misunnelse og, n&#229;r det gjelder handlinger, utroskap, tyveri og drap&#187;<em>. (Aristoteles, 1107a 8-14)</em></p><p><em>Some passions or actions admit of no mean, and the very name reveals that they are extreme, excessive or deficient, for example </em>&#8220;malice, shamelessness, envy and, in the case of actions, adultery, theft and murder&#8221;<em>. (Aristotle, 1107a 8-14)</em></p><p>We skip to happiness after a trowelful of mortar: happiness coincides with virtue, it is the preserve of the highest virtue, the virtue of reason, and in it the highest pleasure merges. Gleaning, bricklaying, wading in the linguistic matter.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!T2Ve!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9f92eff-2af4-4020-849b-ed14fcb2db7b_4080x3060.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!T2Ve!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9f92eff-2af4-4020-849b-ed14fcb2db7b_4080x3060.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!T2Ve!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9f92eff-2af4-4020-849b-ed14fcb2db7b_4080x3060.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!T2Ve!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9f92eff-2af4-4020-849b-ed14fcb2db7b_4080x3060.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!T2Ve!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9f92eff-2af4-4020-849b-ed14fcb2db7b_4080x3060.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!T2Ve!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9f92eff-2af4-4020-849b-ed14fcb2db7b_4080x3060.jpeg" width="1456" height="1092" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!T2Ve!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9f92eff-2af4-4020-849b-ed14fcb2db7b_4080x3060.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!T2Ve!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9f92eff-2af4-4020-849b-ed14fcb2db7b_4080x3060.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!T2Ve!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9f92eff-2af4-4020-849b-ed14fcb2db7b_4080x3060.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!T2Ve!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9f92eff-2af4-4020-849b-ed14fcb2db7b_4080x3060.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Troms&#248;, Norway</figcaption></figure></div><p>The obvious impediment to this kind of practice is the almost necessary stationariness, if not for reading, <a href="https://learnfinnishlikeamachine.substack.com/p/the-length-of-time">which can be superimposed on a slow walk among the shelves</a>, at any rate for the writing of essays. It seems quite evident that sedentarism plays a key role in the physical debilitation of Western populations, where sedentariness, beyond its metonymic sense of form-agnostic staticity, must also be considered in its etymological pertaining to the <em>seated</em> position specifically. More precisely, seated with legs bent at right angles, feet on the ground, on <em>high chairs</em>. The everyday use of the latter, initially the preserve of the upper strata, is at most a few centuries old. It has swept over the rest of the population in step with affluence and comfort, until plaguing just about everyone in the era of offices. Now, it seems that the malignant postural creases that such prolonged chair sitting irons in lead steeply downhill to the grave: loss of muscular tone, metabolic weakening, demise. At least, that&#8217;s what a study of postural habits in the Hadza of Tanzania reveals, a hunter-gatherer population that mostly squats, kneels, lies down or sits crossed-legged or legs flexed on one side on the floor when resting. <em>Do you mean </em>squats<em>, the painful movement one drives 20 miles to go do 3&#215;8 reps of at the gym twice a week, if all goes well?</em> Apparently, that&#8217;s it.</p><p><em>For soleus, the assisted squat posture (squatting with heels in ground contact and with the buttocks resting on a small rock) elicited significantly higher muscle activity compared with chair sitting. For soleus, vastus lateralis, and tibialis anterior, the full squatting posture (squatting with heels in ground contact and buttocks elevated from the ground) elicited higher levels of muscle activity compared with chair sitting.</em></p><p>The researchers summarize the hypotheses they dread seeing confirmed:</p><p><em>Inactivity is a growing public health risk in industrialized societies, leading some to suggest that our bodies did not evolve to be sedentary. Here, we show that, in a group of hunter-gatherers, time spent sedentary is similar to that found in industrialized populations. However, sedentary time in hunter-gatherers is often spent in postures like squatting that lead to higher levels of muscle activity than chair sitting. Thus, we suggest human physiology likely evolved in a context that included substantial inactivity, but increased muscle activity during sedentary time, suggesting an inactivity mismatch with the more common chair-sitting postures found in contemporary urban populations.</em></p><p>(Raichlen, 2020)</p><p>So wherever you sit in the cake, the Hadza have, it seems, an edge. Ironically, German has <em>Vorsitzende</em> (<em>front-seated</em>) and English <em>chairman</em> for the one who has the privilege of sitting on a throne at the headquarters (<em>der</em> <em>Sitz, </em>literally<em>, the seat</em>). Perhaps a Hadza jibe made terminology. </p><p>Luckily, in the reading room of the <em>Nasjonalbiblioteket</em>, facing the windows over <em>Observatoriegata</em>, and opposite, the bay windows of vast offices where presidents put on important airs on their swivel chairs while passing video calls with other seated people, there, there are two wingback armchairs so ample that it is possible to alternate in them lotus, squat and other tonic figures in socks. In short, we try to cheat chairs as much as universities, by finding noncanonical ways of sitting that make use of them and, on balance, benefit us.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Are your efforts not in vain?</em> Most certainly, by many a benchmark. It does not escape us that the same exam was probably passable, had that been our driving objective, by the mere distracted reading of the book's broad outlines over three languid afternoons. Some worry and grieve that the professional destinations of the student fuel convoys are drying up. That is the least of the difficulties, one that those whose earthy vocation is to keep the machinery running will not take long to settle, which they are already settling through the rhizomatic laying of universal virtual entertainment, in which the very simulacrum of studies partakes. What should rather be deplored is the soullessness of studies consisting in validating glacial modules on a computer screen, a prelude to a life spent on the conveyor belt. In this regard, we also fail to shake the walls of such edifices raised by the fanatics of order and vacuity. Worse, by our mere presence, our registration number, be it that of a visiting student, we serve as furniture shims to a department. Nevertheless, the contribution of our caste (that of overage guest students enrolling abroad in random courses for the sole purpose of linguistic crunching) being, most likely, hardly countable, we can&#8217;t decisively call ourselves collaborators, while our diverting tactics let us off the hook further still. We have, for that matter, no more interest in the collapse of the university castle of wind than in that of the commercial internet, highway billboards, <em>Kentucky Fried Chicken </em>or even the <em>Bayreuth Festival</em>, whose dissonant bursts of wrath interleaved with the laments of a swan being slaughtered have resounded since 1876, and which its eager historical endorsement by the Nazis has not sufficed to get canceled: the grey discourse of management, and the hollow thought it carries, fill, like gases, all available space, which makes it an immaterial enemy, every manifestation, every embodiment of which should be annihilated for its eradication to be complete. A passing thought makes us shudder: we would be quite aggrieved if a general collapse also swept away the supply chain which, when pulled, brings to our table, from Portugal, canned wild Alaskan salmon in organic olive oil. Ultimately, we are set to pervert the present premises in the same innocuous fashion: to profane a <em>board</em> created for volume and speed, blind attrition, to ride it, for as long as it lasts, as though it were a publisher of times past, a gracious one, asynchronously, and in our spare time. Our efforts are not in vain from the internal point of view, ours, that of the existence passing against this backdrop of shadows and matter. As in a wood, the hours are beautiful inside a library.</p><div><hr></div><p>Glimmers of <em>Frogner</em>, blizzard, headlights and ferries amid the haze in the dark bay.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>References</em></p><p>Huysmans, J.-K. (1884). Chapitre XI. Dans <em>&#192; rebours</em>. Wikisource. <a href="https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%80_rebours/Chapitre_XI">https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%80_rebours/Chapitre_XI</a></p><p>Raichlen, D. A., Pontzer, H., Zderic, T. W., Harris, J. A., Mabulla, A. Z. P., Hamilton, M. T., &amp; Wood, B. M. (2020). Sitting, squatting, and the evolutionary biology of human inactivity. <em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</em>, <em>117</em>(13), 7115&#8211;7121. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1911868117">https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1911868117</a></p><div><hr></div><p><em><a href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/dyd-og-lykke">Dyd og lykke</a></em></p><div><hr></div><p><em>Vi tar for oss f&#248;lgende sp&#248;rsm&#229;l om dydsetikk:</em></p><p><em>I </em>Den nikomatiske etikk<em>, argumenterer Aristoteles for at det er en sammenheng mellom det &#229; handle moralsk og det &#229; v&#230;re lykkelig. Forklar hvordan disse henger sammen, if&#248;lge Aristoteles.</em></p><div><hr></div><p>Den tiende boken i <em>Den nikomakiske</em> etikk dr&#248;fter nytelse, lykke og etikk.</p><p>Vi skal beskrive forholdet mellom disse tre begrepene, for &#229; klargj&#248;re nettopp sammenhengen mellom det &#229; handle moralsk og det &#229; v&#230;re lykkelig. F&#248;rst m&#229; vi klargj&#248;re hva moralsk handling er for Aristoteles.</p><p>At dydsetikken er karakterfokusert, blir tydelig hvis vi gransker det aristoteliske kontinensbegrepet. Etiske dyder &#8211; karakterdyder &#8211; tilegnes i barndommen, hvor oppdragelse s&#248;rger for at gode vaner dannes, men de er ikke ferdig utviklet f&#248;r de suppleres med praktisk visdom, som er en av formene for intellektuell dyd. &#197; oppf&#248;re seg dydig krever faktisk en anstrengelse, synonymt med smerte mens den naturlige tilb&#248;yeligheten, fristelsen av d&#229;rlige ting, styres av nytelse. &#171;<em>[B&#229;de] kunnen og dyd</em>&#187;, sier nemlig Aristoteles, &#171;<em>ang&#229;r alltid det som er forbundet med vanskelighet.</em>&#187; F&#248;lelsen av glede og smerte b&#248;r reguleres s&#229; handlingen harmonerer med det gode &#8211; det dydige &#8211; menneskets. N&#229;r det gjelder dette dydsm&#248;nsteret, n&#229;r hun &#171;<em>har bestemt hva hun skal gj&#248;re, trenger hun ikke &#229; kjempe mot et indre press for &#229; handle annerledes [&#8230;] [Hun] blir ikke veldig fortvilet over &#229; m&#229;tte gi avkall p&#229; en nytelse som hun innser at hun burde gi avkall p&#229;.</em>&#187; Den kontinente derimot f&#248;ler denne indre spenningen, fordi den er underlagt f&#248;lelser &#8211; begj&#230;r etter nytelse eller sinne. Den holder disse f&#248;lelsene tilbake, takket v&#230;re sin vellykkede oppdragelse, og oppf&#248;rer seg som en dydig person, men er det ikke. (Kraut, 2022) Dette skillet viser tydelig at dyden ligger i personen, i karakteren, og ikke i handlingen, dens motivasjon eller dens konsekvenser.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!przs!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!przs!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!przs!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!przs!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!przs!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!przs!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg" width="960" height="465" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:465,&quot;width&quot;:960,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Et fargerikt og vidstrakt bilde av den sentrale regionen i Carina-t&#229;ken, tatt av NASA's Hubble-teleskop. Illustrasjon brukt i et essay om Aristoteles' dydsetikk og det guddommelige ved fornuften p&#229; exphilnerd for ExPhil-studenter.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Et fargerikt og vidstrakt bilde av den sentrale regionen i Carina-t&#229;ken, tatt av NASA's Hubble-teleskop. Illustrasjon brukt i et essay om Aristoteles' dydsetikk og det guddommelige ved fornuften p&#229; exphilnerd for ExPhil-studenter.&quot;,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Et fargerikt og vidstrakt bilde av den sentrale regionen i Carina-t&#229;ken, tatt av NASA's Hubble-teleskop. Illustrasjon brukt i et essay om Aristoteles' dydsetikk og det guddommelige ved fornuften p&#229; exphilnerd for ExPhil-studenter." title="Et fargerikt og vidstrakt bilde av den sentrale regionen i Carina-t&#229;ken, tatt av NASA's Hubble-teleskop. Illustrasjon brukt i et essay om Aristoteles' dydsetikk og det guddommelige ved fornuften p&#229; exphilnerd for ExPhil-studenter." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!przs!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!przs!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!przs!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!przs!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">A 50-light-year-wide view of the central region of the Carina Nebula, from NASA&#8217;s Hubble Space Telescope</figcaption></figure></div><p>L&#230;ren om dyd som mellomtilstanden &#171;<em>systematiserer v&#229;r forst&#229;else av hvilke kvaliteter som er dyder</em>&#187;. Alle dydene Aristoteles nevner, preges nemlig av en mellomtilstand mellom ytterpunktene. Vi er da i stand til &#171;<em>&#229; identifisere andre middeltilstander som dyder, selv om de ikke er dyder som vi har et navn for</em>&#187;. Dydsetikken begrenser seg imidlertid til &#229; analysere dydenes natur: Den gir ingen prosedyre for handling, og if&#248;lge Aristoteles er ingen etikk i stand til &#229; gj&#248;re dette, fordi hva som er det rette &#229; gj&#248;re, avhenger av omstendighetene. (Kraut, 2022) Selv om det ikke finnes noen beslutningsregel, har det gode mennesket &#8211; det seri&#248;se mennesket, sier Aristoteles &#8211; et s&#230;regent klarsyn. Det &#171;<em>bed&#248;mmer hvert enkelt tilfelle riktig, og i hvert enkelt tilfelle fremtrer for ham det som er sant</em>&#187;, og et slikt skarpsyn overfl&#248;diggj&#248;r nettopp behovet for en regel : Det &#171;<em>utmerker seg [...] mest av alt ved at det ser hva som er sant i hvert enkelt tilfelle, akkurat som om det var en regel og en m&#229;lestokk</em>&#187; for vurderingen. (Aristoteles, 1113a 31-35) Denne umuligheten av en prosedyre for handling utelukker imidlertid ikke at det finnes kategoriske plikter og forbud: Noen lidenskaper eller handlinger kjenner ingen middelvei, og selve navnet avsl&#248;rer at de er ekstreme, overdrevne eller mangelfulle, for eksempel &#171;<em>ondskap, skaml&#248;shet, misunnelse og, n&#229;r det gjelder handlinger, utroskap, tyveri og drap</em>&#187;. (Aristoteles, 1107a 8-14)</p><p>Moralske handlinger er handlinger som ville blitt utf&#248;rt av et dydig menneske, hvis f&#248;lelser er blitt regulert av oppdragelse og vane. Vi skal se n&#229; n&#230;rmere hvordan Aristoteles definerer lykke, i forhold til dyd og nytelse.</p><p>Lykke er det vi &#171;<em>fastsetter som m&#229;let for menneskelivet</em>&#187;. Hos Aristoteles er det et klart sammenfall mellom lykke og dyd : &#171;<em>Lykkelig synes det liv &#229; v&#230;re som leves i overeenstemmelse med dyden</em>&#187;. (Aristoteles, 1999, s.276-277) Aristoteles sier ogs&#229; : Det finnes mange ting som &#171;<em>vi ville foretrekke [&#8230;] selv om det ikke fulgte nytelse med dem</em>&#187; : for eksempel &#171;<em>det &#229; se, vite eller &#229; besitte dydene</em>&#187;. Dyden etterstrebes for sin egen skyld, uavhengig av nytelse. (Aristoteles, 1999, s.201) Visse nytelser, de gode nytelsene, de som virkelig fortjener navnet nytelse, er likevel &#171;<em>blandet inn i lykke</em>&#187; : Det som fortjener navnet nytelse, er det gode menneskets nytelse: lykkelig og dydig. (Aristoteles, 1999, s.276-277)</p><p>Lykke er den virksomheten som er knyttet til dyd: Men siden den er det endelige m&#229;let for menneskelivet, m&#229; den v&#230;re knyttet til den mektigste av dydene, den som springer ut av det beste i oss, det vil si fra det guddommelige i oss. Det mektigste og guddommeligste i oss er fornuften, og det er derfor den virksomheten som er fornuftens prerogativ, den teoretiske betraktningen, som er lykken &#8211; og den tilh&#248;rende dyden, er fornuftens dyd, alts&#229; visdom. Et liv i samsvar med menneskelige dyder, for eksempel mot eller rettferdighet, er ogs&#229; lykkelig, men bare &#171;<em>p&#229; en sekund&#230;r m&#229;te</em>&#187;. Disse menneskelige dydene er fortsatt avhengige av kroppen og f&#248;lelsene, og krever spesielle ressurser eller omstendigheter: Mot krever styrke, gavmildhet penger. &#171;<em>Fornuftens dyd</em>&#187;, derimot, &#171;<em>er noe s&#230;rskilt</em>&#187; : Visdom kan ut&#248;ves uavhengig av ytre betingelser. Dessuten er &#171;<em>den som virker i overensstemmelse med fornuften [...] mest elsket av gudene</em>&#187;, og den vise, som gudene elsker mest, er &#171;<em>rimeligvis ogs&#229; den lykkeligste</em>&#187;. (Aristoteles, 1999, s.280-282) Og den virksomheten som &#171;<em>er i overensstemmelse med visdom</em>&#187; gir f&#248;lgelig &#171;<em>mest nytelse</em>&#187;. (Aristoteles, 1999, s.279)</p><p>Hos den vise sammenfaller lykke, dyd og nytelse &#8211; ja, han oppn&#229;r kvintessensen av hver av de tre. Det er oppdragelsen som f&#248;rer til &#229; finne nytelse i dydig handling, den handlingen som kroner lykke. For Aristoteles er n&#230;rmere sett nytelse og smerte verkt&#248;y i dydsoppdragelsen : F&#248;lelser m&#229; oppl&#230;res slik at man b&#229;de &#171;<em>gleder seg over</em>&#187; &#171;<em>det man b&#248;r</em>&#187; slik at nytelse og smerte har &#171;<em>avgj&#248;rende vekt for, og evne til, &#229; skape dyd og et lykkelig liv, ettersom folk beslutter seg for det som gir nytelse og unng&#229;r det som gir smerte</em>&#187;. Dyden etterstrebes for dens egen skyld og uavhengig av nytelsen som f&#248;lger av den, men den som er oppdratt til dyd, finner nytelse i dydig handling. Den som p&#229; fritiden opp&#248;ver seg til virksomheten som bringer frem det guddommelige i seg selv, oppn&#229;r den h&#248;yeste lykke.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Kilder</em></p><p>Aristoteles. (ca. 350 f.Kr./2021). <em>Den nikomakiske etikk</em>. I A. Stigen &amp; &#216;. Rabb&#229;s (Overs.), I E. Skjervheim, G. Skirbekk, &amp; A. Gilje (Red.), <em>Vite, v&#230;re, gj&#248;re: Exphil: l&#230;rebok med originaltekster </em>(s. 307-322). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.</p><p>Aristoteles. (ca. 350 f.Kr./1999). <em>Den nikomakiske etikk</em>. I &#216;. Rabb&#229;s &amp; A. Stigen (Overs.), <em>Den nikomakiske etikk</em>. Oslo: Bokklubben Dagens B&#248;ker, Bokklubbens Kulturbibliotek.</p><p>Kraut, R. (2022). Aristotle&#8217;s Ethics. I E. N. Zalta &amp; U. Nodelman (Red.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (H&#248;st 2022 utg.). Stanford: Stanford University.</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[#12 Brevveksling mellom René Descartes og Elisabeth av Böhmen]]></title><description><![CDATA[For Descartes er kropp og sjel to forskjellige substanser, som kan p&#229;virke hverandre. Hans brevpartner, Elisabeth av B&#246;hmen, forsvarer derimot ideen om en enkelt, materiell substans, substratet for to typer egenskaper, fysisk og mental. Argumentet hennes inneholder to premiser : det er klart at sjelen &#171;kan styre kroppens &#229;nder [esprits] og for&#229;rsake frivillige handlinger&#187; og ideen om en sjel som &#171;kun er en tenkende substans&#187; kan ikke redegj&#248;re for det. Konklusjonen er at en slik res cogitans ikke kan finnes. Vi vil belyse flere begrensninger ved Descartes motargumentasjon.]]></description><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/brevveksling-mellom-rene-descartes</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/brevveksling-mellom-rene-descartes</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Galois]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 12 Jul 2026 15:20:00 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JMXU!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5499ef9-4155-41e1-954a-2b87205d0bd2_1280x853.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Vi dr&#248;fter Descartes&#8217; argumentasjon for at </em>&#171;menneskesjelen, som kun er en tenkende substans, kan styre kroppens &#229;nder [esprits] og for&#229;rsake frivillige handlinger&#187;<em> (Elisabeth til Descartes, Haag, 6. mai 1643) i lys av Elisabeths innvendinger. </em></p><div><hr></div><p>For Descartes er kropp og sjel to forskjellige substanser, som kan p&#229;virke hverandre. Hans brevpartner, Elisabeth av B&#246;hmen, forsvarer derimot ideen om en enkelt, materiell substans, substratet for to typer egenskaper, fysisk og mental. Argumentet hennes inneholder to premiser : det er klart at sjelen <em>&#171;kan styre kroppens &#229;nder [esprits] og for&#229;rsake frivillige handlinger&#187;</em> og<em> </em>ideen om en sjel som<em> &#171;kun er en tenkende substans&#187;</em> kan ikke redegj&#248;re for det. Konklusjonen er at en slik<em> res cogitans</em> ikke kan finnes. Vi vil belyse flere begrensninger ved Descartes motargumentasjon.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JMXU!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5499ef9-4155-41e1-954a-2b87205d0bd2_1280x853.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JMXU!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5499ef9-4155-41e1-954a-2b87205d0bd2_1280x853.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JMXU!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5499ef9-4155-41e1-954a-2b87205d0bd2_1280x853.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JMXU!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5499ef9-4155-41e1-954a-2b87205d0bd2_1280x853.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JMXU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5499ef9-4155-41e1-954a-2b87205d0bd2_1280x853.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JMXU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5499ef9-4155-41e1-954a-2b87205d0bd2_1280x853.jpeg" width="1280" height="853" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d5499ef9-4155-41e1-954a-2b87205d0bd2_1280x853.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:853,&quot;width&quot;:1280,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" title="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JMXU!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5499ef9-4155-41e1-954a-2b87205d0bd2_1280x853.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JMXU!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5499ef9-4155-41e1-954a-2b87205d0bd2_1280x853.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JMXU!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5499ef9-4155-41e1-954a-2b87205d0bd2_1280x853.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JMXU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd5499ef9-4155-41e1-954a-2b87205d0bd2_1280x853.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Descartes blir utfordret til &#229; forsvare sin substansedualisme, men argumentet hans postulerer allerede det som skal bevises: At sjelen er en immateriell substans, er en visshet oppn&#229;dd tidligere via den metodiske tvilen fra <em>Meditasjonene</em>. (Descartes, 2021, s.217) Premisset om at sjelen p&#229;virker kroppen inneb&#230;rer igjen (en form for) dualisme: At det finnes to atskilte begreper, sjel og kropp. Det impliserer ogs&#229; kausalitet generelt, og &#229;rsakssammenhengen mellom sjel og kropp spesifikt. Men disse antakelsene kan bestrides. Malebranches Gud er den eneste sanne &#229;rsaken. Han koordinerer de hendelsene som ber&#248;rer skapte ting, deriblant kropp og sjel, som dermed unng&#229;r direkte kausale forhold. Leibniz&#8217; univers best&#229;r av grunnleggende, udelelige monader uten gjensidig p&#229;virkning. En guddommelig forh&#229;ndsbestemt harmoni synkroniserer sjel og kropp, uten behov for direkte interaksjon.</p><p>Hvorfra kommer disse selvf&#248;lgelighetene om sjel, kropp og deres gjensidig p&#229;virkning? Tesen er selve ryggraden i den kartesianske dualismen : Det finnes i oss <em>&#171;opprinnelige ideer&#187;</em> hvis klarhet og tydelighet sikrer sannheten. Likevel truer sirkelresonnementet, n&#229;r den klare id&#233;en om (en fullkomne) Gud garanterer Gud, garantisten for klare id&#233;er. Dernest, siden de debatterer, later ikke Descartes og Elisabeth &#229; v&#230;re begavet med de samme klare id&#233;ene. Descartes klargj&#248;r paradokset: vi blir villedet, s&#229; snart vi pr&#248;ver &#229; bruke id&#233;er p&#229; omr&#229;der hvor de er fremmede. (Descartes, 2021, s.217) Elisabeth universaliserer prinsippene som kun gjelder det <em>res extensa</em>, n&#229;r hun p&#229;st&#229;r at <em>&#171;enhver bevegelse skjer ved at den bevegede tingen dyttes&#187;</em>, noe som forutsetter enten <em>&#171;ber&#248;ring&#187;</em> eller at <em>&#171;det som dytter, har utstrekning.&#187; </em>(Elisabeth av B&#246;hmen, 2021, s.216) V&#229;re feilvurderinger, utdyper Descartes, skyldes faktisk mangel p&#229; praksis, fra de instanser, ren fornuft, forestillingsevne og hverdagserfaringens sanser, som er involvert i de klare id&#233;ene om henholdsvis sjelen, kroppen og deres forening. (Descartes, 2021, s.221) N&#229; er det &#248;velse som finjusterer klarhet p&#229; et spektrum, mens sannheten er bin&#230;r : Kriteriet om nok &#248;velse er uklart. Og mens opprinelige, medf&#248;dte ideer kan p&#229;berope seg en viss universalitet, er &#248;velsen radikalt subjektiv. Den objektive, absolutte garantisten har forduftet.</p><p>Hva kan man vite om sjelen og dens forening med kroppen? I forlengelsen av Meditasjonene foreleser Descartes for Elisabeth om metode. Fenomener, ville Kant innvende, kan ikke gi kunnskap om noumena, om tingene i seg selv. Det er hele Descartes&#8217; prosjektet om &#229; <em>&#171;&#248;ke sannhetsforholdet&#187;</em> som fragiliseres. (Williams, 1978, s.49) Hans rasjonelle sjelel&#230;rens p&#229;stander m&#229; nedjusteres. &#197; befolke universet med bevisstheter, og &#229; tilskrive dem substans, enkelhet, identitet i tid og uavhengighet av erfaring, er en paralogisme. Det <em>cogito</em> som visshetss&#248;keren n&#229;r frem til, er <em>&#171;en blott og bar bevissthet som ledsager alle begreper&#187;. </em>Det er erkjennelsen selv, et transportmiddel for de mentale kategoriene som trenger et tilskudd av erfaring til &#229; muliggj&#248;re synthetiske dommer. Men den minste kontakt med erfaring forderver rasjonell psykologi til en empirisk, og muligheten for apodiktisk, allmenn dom om en <em>res cogitans</em> uteblir. (Kant, 2009, B404, s.382)</p><p>Descartes erkjenner paradokset, som ulmer under hans hele substansedualisme i &#229; <em>&#171;tenke [sjel og kropp] b&#229;de som en enkelt og to forskellige ting&#187;. </em>(Descartes, 2021, s.222) Som siste utvei for avklaring tyr han til en analogi, mellom Elisabeths argument og den gjengse villfarelsen om at kroppens egenskaper (f.eks. tyngde) er substanser. Han hevder &#229; kunne tilbakevise sistnevnte, og at dette er nok til &#229; avkrefte f&#248;rstnevnte. Elisabeth protestere snart: En immateriell sjel som er atskilt fra kroppen, kan vanskelig sammenlignes med kroppens egenskaper som ikke er det. (Elisabeth av B&#246;hmen, 2021, s. 220) Det finnes likevel en analogi i tankegangen: Vi innser at b&#229;de sjelen og kroppens egenskaper har kraft til &#229; p&#229;virke kroppen. Vi antar at denne p&#229;virkningen er av samme art som en kropps p&#229;virkning p&#229; en annen. Vi utleder at sjelen og egenskaper er reelle ting, substanser, som virker p&#229; kroppen ved &#229; ut&#248;ve en kraft p&#229; kontaktflaten. (Descartes, 2021, s.218) Hvorfor er resonnementet om tyngde feil ? P&#229; nytt, det er evidensen for en id&#233;e som er bevis for den, noe vi har sett ikke er godt nok.</p><p>Men det er et mer grunnleggende problem med analogien. Selv om demonstrasjonen om kroppens egenskaper hadde holdt m&#229;l, ville det bare v&#230;rt p&#229;vist at noe immaterielt kan p&#229;virke kroppen, og <em>&#171;det ville ikke f&#248;re noe sted &#229; forklare slike naturlige fenomener som ens evne til &#229; bevege kroppen etter egen vilje.&#187;</em> (Williams, 1978, p298) Brevene er preget av ansatser til den teorien som utvikles i <em>Sjelens lidenskaper</em>: Descartes s&#248;ker &#229; lokalisere sjelens og kroppens foreningen. Og Williams demonstrerer lenge blindgaten : <em>&#171;Den eneste delen av kroppen min </em>[konglekjertelen eller dens motstykke i et hvilket som helst annet nevrofysiologisk rammeverk] <em>som er direkte mottakelig for min vilje, er en del som jeg ikke kan bevege etter egen vilje.&#187; </em>Noe som synes &#229; utelukke denne underlige virkningen av sjelen p&#229; avstand.</p><p><em>Konklusjon</em></p><p>Elisabeths egenskapsdualisme &#8211; en fysisk b&#230;rer av ikke-fysiske mentale egenskaper &#8211; later til &#229; arve problemene fra den kartesianske substansdualismen : Siden <em>&#171; det kan ikke finnes noe tredjepersonsperspektiv p&#229; bevissthetens innhold &#187;, </em>det er usikker hvorfor <em>&#171; en tredjepersonlig verdensanskuelse som bare inneholder de genuint tredjepersonlige fakta om atferd, tale og fysiologi &#187; </em>ville mangle, for &#229; forklare mentale tilstander, et supplement av sjel. (Williams, 1978, s.296) Aporien i disse debattene kan tale for en form for fysikalisme: Sammen med samtidens hjerneforskere, man kan redusere de mentale tilstandene til <em>&#171;det nevronale mennesket&#187;</em> (Changeux, 1983) til synaptisk kjemi, og assimilere den tenkende hjernen til en bred modell for naturlig spr&#229;kbehandling, som den eksponentielle fremgangen av halvlederteknologi og kunstig intelligens vil forklare perfekt.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Kilder</em></p><p><em>Descartes, R. &amp; Elisabeth av B&#246;hmen. (2021). Brevveksling mellom Ren&#233; Descartes og Elisabeth av B&#246;hmen. I S. Watzl (Red.), Hva er sinnets plass i naturen? I E. Skjervheim, G. Skirbekk, &amp; A. Gilje (Red.), Vite, v&#230;re, gj&#248;re: Exphil: l&#230;rebok med originaltekster (s. 215-224). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.</em></p><p><em>Williams, B. (1978). Descartes: The project of pure enquiry. London: Penguin Books.</em></p><p><em>Kant, I. (2009). Kritikk av den rene fornuft (S. Mathisen, C. Serck-Hanssen &amp; &#216;. Skar, Overs.). Oslo: Pax forlag.</em></p><p><em>Changeux, J.-P. (1983). L&#8217;Homme neuronal. Paris: Fayard.</em></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[#11 Kants deontologi: moral og lykke]]></title><description><![CDATA[Deontologi er en av de tre hovedretningene innen normativ etikk, som er opptatt av hvilke valg som moralsk sett er p&#229;krevd, forbudt eller tillatt. Dydsetikken, som vi har sett, er opptatt av utviklingen og vurderingen av den typen person man er, av ens dyder : en dyd er &#171;et utmerket karaktertrekk&#187;, en &#171;disposisjon som er godt forankret i den som innehar den - noe som g&#229;r til bunns, i motsetning til en vane&#187; (Hursthouse & Pettigrove, 2023). I kontrast hertil er b&#229;de deontologien og utilitarismen opptatt av handlinger &#8211; men p&#229; ulike m&#229;ter. Utilitarisme maksimerer generelt den nytelsen som handlingens p&#229;virkninger medf&#248;rer. Deontologien tar derimot hensyn til handlingers egenverdi, uavhengig av deres konsekvenser.]]></description><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/kants-deontologi-moral-og-lykke</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/kants-deontologi-moral-og-lykke</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Galois]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sat, 11 Jul 2026 15:57:00 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J2dD!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9c2cd893-ef65-492b-8393-ddb6dba0cc7c_775x407.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>I det f&#248;lgende vil vi dr&#248;fte f&#248;lgende problemstillinger knyttet til pliktsetikk:</p><p>If&#248;lge Kant vil det &#229; handle moralsk ofte v&#230;re i konflikt med egen lykke. Hva er det som avgj&#248;r om en handling er moralsk, if&#248;lge Kant?</p><div><hr></div><p>Deontologi er en av de tre hovedretningene innen normativ etikk, som er opptatt av hvilke valg som moralsk sett er p&#229;krevd, forbudt eller tillatt. Dydsetikken, som vi har sett, er opptatt av utviklingen og vurderingen av den typen person man er, av ens dyder : en dyd er &#171;<em>et utmerket karaktertrekk</em>&#187;, en &#171;<em>disposisjon som er godt forankret i den som innehar den - noe som g&#229;r til bunns, i motsetning til en vane</em>&#187; (Hursthouse &amp; Pettigrove, 2023). I kontrast hertil er b&#229;de deontologien og utilitarismen opptatt av handlinger &#8211; men p&#229; ulike m&#229;ter. Utilitarisme maksimerer generelt den nytelsen som handlingens p&#229;virkninger medf&#248;rer. Deontologien tar derimot hensyn til handlingers egenverdi, uavhengig av deres konsekvenser.</p><p>En handling er aldri etisk i kraft av dens (gode) konsekvenser for den handlende, og heller ikke i kraft av de f&#248;lelsene som f&#248;lger med. Eventuelle positive konsekvenser eller f&#248;lelser er tilfeldige og verken tilf&#248;rer eller forringer handlingens etiske karakter. Det er et ledemotiv i Grunnlegging for moralens metafysikk, for eksempel : &#171;<em>Handlingens moralske verdi ligger alts&#229; ikke i den virkning som man venter seg av den, heller ikke i noen handlingsprinsipp som m&#229; hente sitt motiv fra den forventede virkning.</em>&#187; (Kant, 1785/2021, s.351) Det f&#248;rste utsagnet forkaster en direkte konsekvensvurdering, som i den senere handlingsutilitarismen til en Bentham eller en Mill, mens det andre avviser en slags regelutilitarisme, som John Rawls senere synes &#229; forsvare i To Regelbegreper (Rawls, 1955/1970).</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J2dD!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9c2cd893-ef65-492b-8393-ddb6dba0cc7c_775x407.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J2dD!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9c2cd893-ef65-492b-8393-ddb6dba0cc7c_775x407.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J2dD!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9c2cd893-ef65-492b-8393-ddb6dba0cc7c_775x407.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J2dD!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9c2cd893-ef65-492b-8393-ddb6dba0cc7c_775x407.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J2dD!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9c2cd893-ef65-492b-8393-ddb6dba0cc7c_775x407.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J2dD!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9c2cd893-ef65-492b-8393-ddb6dba0cc7c_775x407.jpeg" width="775" height="407" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9c2cd893-ef65-492b-8393-ddb6dba0cc7c_775x407.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:407,&quot;width&quot;:775,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot; Svart-hvitt-fotografi av en st&#248;vvirvel p&#229; Mars, tatt av Mars Global Surveyor. Brukt som illustrasjon til et essay om Kants deontologi og motsetningen mellom naturlover og frihetslover p&#229; exphilnerd for ExPhil-studenter.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot; Svart-hvitt-fotografi av en st&#248;vvirvel p&#229; Mars, tatt av Mars Global Surveyor. Brukt som illustrasjon til et essay om Kants deontologi og motsetningen mellom naturlover og frihetslover p&#229; exphilnerd for ExPhil-studenter.&quot;,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt=" Svart-hvitt-fotografi av en st&#248;vvirvel p&#229; Mars, tatt av Mars Global Surveyor. Brukt som illustrasjon til et essay om Kants deontologi og motsetningen mellom naturlover og frihetslover p&#229; exphilnerd for ExPhil-studenter." title=" Svart-hvitt-fotografi av en st&#248;vvirvel p&#229; Mars, tatt av Mars Global Surveyor. Brukt som illustrasjon til et essay om Kants deontologi og motsetningen mellom naturlover og frihetslover p&#229; exphilnerd for ExPhil-studenter." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J2dD!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9c2cd893-ef65-492b-8393-ddb6dba0cc7c_775x407.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J2dD!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9c2cd893-ef65-492b-8393-ddb6dba0cc7c_775x407.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J2dD!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9c2cd893-ef65-492b-8393-ddb6dba0cc7c_775x407.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J2dD!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9c2cd893-ef65-492b-8393-ddb6dba0cc7c_775x407.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">A dust devil on Mars, photographed by Mars Global Surveyor</figcaption></figure></div><p>Dessuten er det ikke nok for en handling &#229; v&#230;re i samsvar med plikten for at den skal v&#230;re etisk. Den m&#229; ogs&#229; v&#230;re bevisst motivert av dette samsvaret med moralloven. Formuleringen st&#229;r i innledningen til Kants Grunnlegging for moralens metafysikk: &#171;<em>For at noe skal v&#230;re moralsk godt er det ikke tilstrekkelig at det er i overeenstemmelse med moralloven [denne overensstemmelse kan v&#230;re tilfeldig], men de m&#229; ogs&#229; skje for dennes skyld.</em>&#187; (Kant, 1785/1970, s.5) Men hvordan kan vi v&#230;re sikre p&#229; at vi faktisk handler &#171;<em>av plikt</em>&#187;, &#171;<em>ut fra et moralsk sinnelag</em>&#187;? V&#229;re egne beveggrunner forblir skjult for oss, if&#248;lge Kants Moralens metafysikk : &#171;<em>Det er nemlig ikke mulig for mennesket [&#8230;] &#229; skue s&#229; dypt i sitt egen hjerte, at det kan v&#230;re fullstendig sikker p&#229; at dets moralske hensikt og sinnelag er rent, selv om det ikke er i tvil om handlingens lovmessighet</em>&#187;. Plikten om &#229; &#171;<em>s&#248;ke maksimen for handlingen [...] alene i loven</em>&#187; er alts&#229; ubestemt, den foreskriver kun en innsats for moralsk foredling, for &#229; minske gapet mellom den graden av moralsk drivkraft vi tilskriver oss selv og den faktiske. (Kant, 1797/1970, s.145-146) Maksimen hos Kant er &#171;<em>det subjektive handlingsprinsipp</em>&#187; som m&#229; &#171;<em>skjelnes fra det objektive prinsip, nemlig det praktiske lov</em>&#187;. (Kant, 1785/2021, s.356) Maksimen er den selvp&#229;lagte regelen som til syvende og sist avgj&#248;r &#171;<em>i handling</em>&#187;. Maksimen er derfor ufullkomment konsistent med moralloven. Den har bare moralsk innhold hvis, og i den grad, den foreskriver en handling som er utf&#248;rt &#171;<em>av plikt</em>&#187;.</p><p>Det er fordi mennesket er fritt, fordi dets vilje kan betraktes som l&#248;srevet fra naturens ufravikelige lover, og fordi det er i stand til &#229; innrette sine intensjoner etter fornuftens moralske lover, at dets handlinger kan ha en etisk verdi : Vi kan tvinges til handlinger, men ikke til intensjoner ; &#229; handle etisk er &#229; handle i samsvar med fornuftens moralske lover, av egen fri, god vilje. Innledningen til Grunnlegging av moralens metafysikk &#229;pner med det skillet i gresk filosofi, som Kant selv tar opp, mellom tre vitenskaper: logikk, fysikk og etikk : Mens fysikken er opptatt av &#171;<em>naturlover</em>&#187;, etikk, alts&#229; &#171;<em>moralfilosofi</em>&#187; eller &#171;<em>moralens metafysikk</em>&#187; er nettopp den vitenskapen om &#171;<em>frihetslover</em>&#187;. (Kant, 1785/1970, s.3)</p><p>Grunnprinsippet for fornuftens lover, som ethvert rasjonelt vesen er medforfatter av, er det kategoriske imperativ, som Kant formulerer p&#229; fire ulike m&#229;ter i Grunnlag for moralens metafysikk. Et imperativ er da det objektive moralske prinsippet &#8211; dets mest generelle formel &#8211; som jeg forestiller meg selv, og som utgj&#248;r en tvang for min vilje. Et imperativ er et &#171;<em>skal</em>&#187;, det forplikter, tvinger, viljen til det som er objektivt godt &#229; gj&#248;re. Men viljen er ogs&#229; underlagt subjektive krefter, det behagelige, tilb&#248;yeligheter, behov. Gud, eller en helgen, har ingen vilje: De mangler tilb&#248;yelighetskomponenten, det finnes ikke noe mellomrom mellom fornuftens objektive bud og handling. Et hypotetisk imperativ peker mot, er et middel for &#229; n&#229;, et m&#229;l. Et kategorisk imperativ, derimot, fremstiller &#171;<em>en handling som objektiv-n&#248;dvendig i seg selv uten relasjon til et annet m&#229;l</em>&#187;. (Kant, 1793/2021, s.354-356) Alle kan strebe etter &#229; utvikle dyktigheten til &#229; n&#229; alle slags m&#229;l, noe som kommer til uttrykk i foreldrenes omsorg for &#229; vekke barna til ulike kunstarter. Det er imidlertid ett m&#229;l som alle mennesker begj&#230;rer, nemlig lykken, og dyktigheten, s&#229; &#229; si, til &#229; n&#230;rme seg den, er klokskap. Klokskapets forskrifter, som peker p&#229; midler til lykke, er assertoriske, hypotetiske imperativer. Det kategoriske imperativ er uavhengig av handlingen og dens konsekvenser. Det er &#171;moralens imperativ <em>&#187;. Det krever, ubetinget : &#171;Handle bare etter den maksimen gjennom hvilken du samtidig kan ville at den skal bli en allmenn lov&#187;</em>. (Kant, 1793/2021, s.356-357) Dette utgj&#248;r kategorisk imperativs universallovsformulering.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZBPf!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feb2f22a1-32ea-47c8-938d-c1e562546512_700x610.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZBPf!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feb2f22a1-32ea-47c8-938d-c1e562546512_700x610.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZBPf!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feb2f22a1-32ea-47c8-938d-c1e562546512_700x610.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZBPf!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feb2f22a1-32ea-47c8-938d-c1e562546512_700x610.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZBPf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feb2f22a1-32ea-47c8-938d-c1e562546512_700x610.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZBPf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feb2f22a1-32ea-47c8-938d-c1e562546512_700x610.jpeg" width="700" height="610" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/eb2f22a1-32ea-47c8-938d-c1e562546512_700x610.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:610,&quot;width&quot;:700,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot; Satellittbilde av den nordlige polarkalotten p&#229; Mars med synlige lag av vannis og st&#248;v, fotografert av ESA. Brukt som illustrasjon til et essay om Kants deontologi og jakten p&#229; universelle lover p&#229; exphilnerd for ExPhil-studenter.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot; Satellittbilde av den nordlige polarkalotten p&#229; Mars med synlige lag av vannis og st&#248;v, fotografert av ESA. Brukt som illustrasjon til et essay om Kants deontologi og jakten p&#229; universelle lover p&#229; exphilnerd for ExPhil-studenter.&quot;,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt=" Satellittbilde av den nordlige polarkalotten p&#229; Mars med synlige lag av vannis og st&#248;v, fotografert av ESA. Brukt som illustrasjon til et essay om Kants deontologi og jakten p&#229; universelle lover p&#229; exphilnerd for ExPhil-studenter." title=" Satellittbilde av den nordlige polarkalotten p&#229; Mars med synlige lag av vannis og st&#248;v, fotografert av ESA. Brukt som illustrasjon til et essay om Kants deontologi og jakten p&#229; universelle lover p&#229; exphilnerd for ExPhil-studenter." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZBPf!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feb2f22a1-32ea-47c8-938d-c1e562546512_700x610.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZBPf!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feb2f22a1-32ea-47c8-938d-c1e562546512_700x610.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZBPf!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feb2f22a1-32ea-47c8-938d-c1e562546512_700x610.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZBPf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feb2f22a1-32ea-47c8-938d-c1e562546512_700x610.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">View of the Martian north polar ice cap with layers of water ice and dust, European Space Agency, ESA/DLR/FU Berlin (G. Neukum)</figcaption></figure></div><p>Deontologien kan kritiseres for &#229; v&#230;re lite praktisk anvendelig. Hvordan kan agenten sikre sin egen moralske renhet? Kant h&#229;ndterer innvendingen i Grunnlegging av moralens metafysikk : Det er absolutt umulig &#229; utlede fra erfaringen at det finnes &#171;<em>et rent moralsk sinnelag</em>&#187;, alts&#229; maksimer som &#171;<em>utelukkende [er] basert p&#229; moralsk grunn</em>&#187;, og &#171;<em>best&#229;r i forestillingen av plikten</em>&#187;. Handlingenes drivfj&#230;r forblir hemmelig, og &#171;<em>moralsk verdi</em>&#187; umulig &#229; vurdere : Denne kommer ikke &#171;<em>an p&#229; handlingene som man ser, men p&#229; deres indre prinsipper som man ikke ser</em>&#187;. Dette indre prinsippet er ikke engang den handlende selv klar over: Han tror &#229; handle &#171;<em>av plikt</em>&#187;, mens &#171;<em>egenkj&#230;rligheten</em>&#187; styrer. L&#248;sningen ligger i det kategoriske imperativ, som er ledsaget av en praktisk protokoll for &#229; evaluere det moralske innholdet i maksimen. Agenten er moralsk ren hvis han f&#248;lger protokollen til punkt og prikke.</p><p>Men hva med komplekse tilfeller? Deontologien har i s&#230;rdeleshet vanskeligheter med &#229; h&#229;ndtere rettighetskonflikter: Det er forbudt &#229; krenke en rett &#8211; en persons rett til ikke &#229; bli brukt som et middel &#8211; som gj&#248;r det mulig &#229; unng&#229; flere krenkelser av den samme retten. Handlingsmaksimen strider alts&#229; mot det kategoriske imperativ, men det gj&#248;r ogs&#229; ikkehandlingsmaksimen. Selv i frav&#230;r av en slik logisk l&#229;sing, er noen tilfeller krevende &#229; avgj&#248;re : Den kantianske protokollen forskyver bare innvendingen. Selv med blikket festet p&#229; den moralske rettesnoren, hvordan kan den sikre at maksimen er unders&#248;kt p&#229; en p&#229;litelig m&#229;te? Deontologien og dydsetikken deler faktisk det konfliktproblemet &#8211; og tar det gjerne p&#229; seg i stedet for &#229; l&#248;se det p&#229; konsekvensetikkens m&#229;te. (Hursthouse &amp; Pettigrove, 2023)</p><div><hr></div><p>La oss illustrere hva som utgj&#248;r det &#229; handle moralsk for Kant gjennom brevvekslingen med Maria von Herbert. Den viser klart at det &#229; handle moralsk ofte er i konflikt med egen lykke. Som et premiss, skriver Kant, har hvert organ i &#171;<em>de naturlige anlegg hos et organisert vesen</em>&#187; sin funksjon. Fornuften er et sv&#230;rt utilstrekkelig &#171;<em>organ</em>&#187; for &#229; n&#229; m&#229;let om livets &#171;<em>opprettholdelse</em>&#187; eller &#171;<em>lykke</em>&#187; : &#171;<em>Rettesnoren</em>&#187; for atferden til et rasjonelt vesen som ville ha lykken som m&#229;l, &#171;<em>ville kunne forskrives langt n&#248;yaktigere [&#8230;] ved en instinkt enn det noensinne kan skje ved fornuftens hjelp</em>&#187;. Det kultiverte mennesket g&#229;r s&#229; langt som til &#229; utvikle mistro til fornuften, en &#171;<em>misologi</em>&#187;, n&#229;r det innser at nytelse og egeninteresse er bedre tjent uten den. Andre erkjenner fornuften som et organ for en hensikt som er h&#248;yere enn lykken, en hensikt som synes &#229; bidra til &#171;<em>verdens gode styrelse</em>&#187;. Fornuft er tildelt oss som &#171;<em>en praktisk evne</em>&#187;, en evne alts&#229; som p&#229;virker &#171;<em>viljen</em>&#187;. Dens funksjon er &#229; frembringe en vilje som ikke er et middel til lykke eller et annet m&#229;l, men som er god i seg selv &#8211; Kant sier senere, en &#171;<em>god vilje</em>&#187;. (Kant, 1785/2021, s.346-347)</p><p>Det er en langt overlegen tilfredsstillelse som fornuften forbeholder : Den tilfredsstillelse nettopp &#171;<em>som f&#248;lger &#229; virkeliggj&#248;re et form&#229;l som [&#8230;] er fastsatt av fornuften</em>&#187;, selv om v&#229;re tilb&#248;yeligheter skulle motarbeides av dette. (Kant, 1785/2021, s.348)</p><p>Likevel finnes det fortsatt en plikt til lykke, &#171;<em>for manglende tilfredshet med ens tilstand [&#8230;] kan let blir en stor fristelse til &#229; overtre pliktene</em>&#187;. Maksimen, det praktiske prinsippet som styrer handling, f&#229;r sitt moralske innhold n&#229;r handlingen ikke bare er &#171;<em>i overensstemmelse med plikten</em>&#187;, men &#171;<em>av plikt</em>&#187;. Lykke er en sum, summen av alle tilb&#248;yeligheter. Det krever en anstrengelse &#229; prioritere denne usikre id&#233;en om en sum, fremfor enkelte tilb&#248;yeligheter. &#197; strebe etter egen lykke, ikke av tilb&#248;yelighet, men av plikt, har en moralsk verdi &#8211; liksom &#229; elske sin neste, uten &#171;<em>f&#248;lelsesmessig hang</em>&#187;, men ut fra en god vilje grunnlagt av fornuft. (Kant, 1785/2021, s.349-350)</p><p>Maria von Herbert, Kants brevpartner, fordervet et kj&#230;rlighetsforhold med en langvarig l&#248;gn, og det eneste som holder henne i live, er <em>&#171;slutningen [hun] m&#229;tte trekke av [Kants] teorier : at et liv i pinsel ikke er en grunn for &#229; d&#248;, og at [hennes] eksistens derimot er en grunn for &#229; leve.&#187; </em>Hun viser alle kjennetegnene p&#229; det moderne typologi vil beskrive som depresjon. &#171;<em>En f&#248;lelse av tomhet har begynt &#229; bre seg utover, [&#8230;] slik at jeg nesten blir overfl&#248;dig for meg selv.</em>&#187; Maria, som er gjennomsyret av kantiansk etikk, skiller likevel utilfredsheten med egne tilb&#248;yeligheter - selv om hun &#171;<em>fikk alle mulige &#248;nsker oppfylt, ville det ikke glede henne</em>&#187; - fra en st&#248;rre utilpasshet, den som skyldes moralsk besvikelse. Hun lider av et klarsyn om &#171;<em>den uredelighet som skjuler seg bak enhver god handling</em>&#187;, et desillusjonert syn p&#229; en verden opptatt av uhensiktsmessige handlinger, og et &#248;nske om &#229; begrense seg til det nyttige og det hensiktsmessige. (Maria von Herbert, 1793/2021, s.366)</p><p>Det anbefales ikke, svarer Kant, &#229; glemme moralske mangler &#8211; forutsatt at Maria angrer p&#229; det umoralske i &#229; lyve, noe som alltid er forkastelig. Men det er ikke noe moralsk i overdreven anger og bots&#248;velse, i &#229; tvinge seg selv ned i ulykken: Som vi har sett, er lykken et hjelpemiddel til plikten. Helbredelsen ligger snarere i erkjennelsen av at den h&#248;yeste tilfredsstillelsen ikke ligger i det gode vi mottar (tilfredsstillelse av tilb&#248;yeligheter), men i det gode vi frembringer (vilje grunnlagt av fornuft). (Kant, 1793/2021, s.368)</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Kilder</em></p><p>Kant, I. (1785/2021). Grunnlegging av moralens metafysikk. I E. Schwabe-Hansen (Overs.), I E. Skjervheim, G. Skirbekk, &amp; A. Gilje (Red.), Vite, v&#230;re, gj&#248;re: Exphil: l&#230;rebok med originaltekster (s. 344-363). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.</p><p>von Herbert, M. &amp; Kant, I. (1793/2021). Brevveksling mellom Maria von Herbert og Immanuel Kant. I &#197;. D. Gr&#248;gaard (Overs.), I E. Skjervheim, G. Skirbekk, &amp; A. Gilje (Red.), Vite, v&#230;re, gj&#248;re: Exphil: l&#230;rebok med originaltekster (s. 366-371). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.</p><p>Kant, I. (1788/2007). Kritikk av den praktiske fornuft. I &#216;. Skar &amp; B. Hansen (Overs.), Thorleif Dahls Kulturbibliotek. Oslo: H. Aschehoug &amp; Co.</p><p>Kant, I. (1785/1970). Grunnlegging av moralens metafysikk. I E. Storheim (Overs.), Morallov og frihet: Moralfilosofiske skrifter (s. 11-74). Oslo: Gyldendal.</p><p>Kant, I. (1797/1970). Moralens metafysikk: Annen del: Etikkens metafysiske prinsipper <a href="utvalg">Tugendlehre</a>. I E. Storheim (Overs.), Morallov og frihet: Moralfilosofiske skrifter (s.129-166). Oslo: Gyldendal.</p><p>Rawls, J. (1955/1970). To regelbegreper. I K. Dramer (Overs.), I H. Ofstad (Red.), Moral og nytte: Filosofiske tekster om utilitarisme (s. 99-123). Oslo: Gyldendal.</p><p>Hursthouse, R., &amp; Pettigrove, G. (2023). Virtue Ethics. I E. N. Zalta &amp; U. Nodelman (Red.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (H&#248;st 2023 utg.). Stanford: Stanford University.</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[#10 Latskap og feighet]]></title><description><![CDATA[Latskap er en nonchalanse, som inneb&#230;rer at vi ikke bruker de ferdighetene vi faktisk besitter. Feighet er mangel p&#229; moralsk vitalitet, som et tegn p&#229; abdisering av innsats. Myndighet er en evne og en rett til selvbestemmelse. Umyndighet er dermed en manglende evne til &#229; bestemme seg selv. Ordet kan henspille p&#229; begrepene mindre&#229;righet og vergem&#229;l. Sistnevnte betegner en tilstand av avhengighet, og i juridisk spr&#229;kbruk en status som forutsetter representasjon i sivile handlinger for en mindre&#229;rig eller en person som ikke kan holdes ansvarlig for sine gjerninger. Vi skal vise hvorfor, if&#248;lge Kant, latskap og feighet er &#229;rsaker til umyndighet.]]></description><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/latskap-og-feighet</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/latskap-og-feighet</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Galois]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Fri, 10 Jul 2026 15:53:00 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!__mj!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe76269cd-94c7-4b2c-8541-658c740006d5_1280x853.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Latskap og feighet, tenk selv! (ca. 510 ord)</em></p><p><em>Dette essayet er i hovedsak basert p&#229; en passasje fra Immanuel Kants </em>Grunnlegging av moralens metafysikk<em>. Det er imidlertid n&#230;rliggende &#229; lese den samme filosofens korte essay </em>Besvarelse av sp&#248;rsm&#229;let: Hva er opplysning?<em>, som vi skal komme tilbake til.</em></p><p><em>Han utarbeidet f&#248;lgende oppgavetema:</em></p><p><em>&#171;Immanuel Kant skriver f&#248;lgende i &#171;Besvarelse av sp&#248;rsm&#229;let: Hva er opplysning?&#187; (s. 25):</em></p><p>&#171;Umyndighet er den manglende evne til &#229; gj&#248;re bruk av egen forstand uten ledelse av en annen. Selvforskyldt er denne umyndigheten n&#229;r dens &#229;rsak ikke ligger i mangel p&#229; forstand, men p&#229; beslutning og mot til &#229; gj&#248;re bruk av egen forstand uten ledelse av en annen. Sapere aude! Ha mot til &#229; gj&#248;re bruk av din egen forstand! er alts&#229; opplysningens valgspr&#229;k.</p><p>Latskap og feighet er &#229;rsakene til at en s&#229; stor del av menneskene, etter at de p&#229; naturlig m&#229;te for lengst er blitt satt fri fra fremmed ledelse (naturaliter maiorennes), allikevel i hele sin levetid gjerne forblir umyndige &#8211; og til at det blir s&#229; lett for andre &#229; oppkaste seg til deres formyndere.&#187;</p><p><em>Forklar hvorfor Kant mener at latskap og feighet er relevante &#229;rsaker til umyndighet. Bruk egne eksempler i forklaringen.&#187;</em></p><div><hr></div><p>Latskap er en nonchalanse, som inneb&#230;rer at vi ikke bruker de ferdighetene vi faktisk besitter. Feighet er mangel p&#229; moralsk vitalitet, som et tegn p&#229; abdisering av innsats. Myndighet er en evne og en rett til selvbestemmelse. Umyndighet er dermed en manglende evne til &#229; bestemme seg selv. Ordet kan henspille p&#229; begrepene mindre&#229;righet og vergem&#229;l. Sistnevnte betegner en tilstand av avhengighet, og i juridisk spr&#229;kbruk en status som forutsetter representasjon i sivile handlinger for en mindre&#229;rig eller en person som ikke kan holdes ansvarlig for sine gjerninger. Vi skal vise hvorfor, if&#248;lge Kant, latskap og feighet er &#229;rsaker til umyndighet.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!__mj!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe76269cd-94c7-4b2c-8541-658c740006d5_1280x853.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!__mj!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe76269cd-94c7-4b2c-8541-658c740006d5_1280x853.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!__mj!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe76269cd-94c7-4b2c-8541-658c740006d5_1280x853.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!__mj!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe76269cd-94c7-4b2c-8541-658c740006d5_1280x853.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!__mj!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe76269cd-94c7-4b2c-8541-658c740006d5_1280x853.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!__mj!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe76269cd-94c7-4b2c-8541-658c740006d5_1280x853.jpeg" width="1280" height="853" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/e76269cd-94c7-4b2c-8541-658c740006d5_1280x853.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:853,&quot;width&quot;:1280,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!__mj!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe76269cd-94c7-4b2c-8541-658c740006d5_1280x853.jpeg&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" title="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!__mj!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe76269cd-94c7-4b2c-8541-658c740006d5_1280x853.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!__mj!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe76269cd-94c7-4b2c-8541-658c740006d5_1280x853.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!__mj!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe76269cd-94c7-4b2c-8541-658c740006d5_1280x853.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!__mj!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe76269cd-94c7-4b2c-8541-658c740006d5_1280x853.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Fornuftige vesener har en plikt til &#229; bruke fornuft. Hver maksime, som er handlingsprinsipp, b&#248;r sammenlignes med og testes mot den kategoriske imperativen. Det er forutsetningen for at maksimer f&#229;r moralsk innhold, som inneb&#230;rer at den handlende blir seg klar over sin underordning under moralloven : For det f&#248;rste, hvis maksimen ikke konfronteres med det kategoriske imperativ, kan handlingen, selv om den tilfeldigvis faller sammen med plikten, ikke utf&#248;res <em>&#171;av</em> plikt <em>&#187;.</em> I tillegg er det i dette tilfellet ikke mulig &#229; bestemme handlingens moralske verdi, som aldri ligger i dens f&#248;lgevirkninger, men kun kan finnes i maksimen.Til sist, &#229; ikke teste maksimen opp mot moralloven utelukker selvsagt at <em>&#171;forestillingen om loven i seg selv&#187;</em> er <em>&#171;viljens bestemmelsesgrunn&#187; </em>: det blir umulig &#229; vise <em>&#171;aktelse for loven&#187;</em> som tilsvarer lucidetheten om at &#171;<em>viljen umiddelbart blir bestemt av loven&#187;. </em>For at maksimen skal f&#229; et moralsk innhold, at den maksimerer dette og n&#230;rmer seg det fremragende gode, som er aktelsen for moralloven, har det fornuftige vesenet en plikt til &#229; bruke fornuft, noe som representerer en <em>innsats</em>.</p><p>Det kategoriske imperativ stemmer fra fornuft og alle mennesker er medforfatter til moralloven. &#197; handle i samsvar med plikten og av aktelse for moralen er &#229; bestemme seg selv ved &#229; underkaste seg loven som ble skrevet av fornuft selv. Det finnes en plikt til &#229; bruke fornuften, og det er ved &#229; bruke fornuften til &#229; underkaste sin maksime den moralske loven at mennesket ut&#248;ver selvbestemmelse, alts&#229; <em>myndighet</em> over seg selv.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zjWl!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feea5684b-05bd-472c-a7a8-64e11ea8146c_281x600.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zjWl!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feea5684b-05bd-472c-a7a8-64e11ea8146c_281x600.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zjWl!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feea5684b-05bd-472c-a7a8-64e11ea8146c_281x600.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zjWl!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feea5684b-05bd-472c-a7a8-64e11ea8146c_281x600.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zjWl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feea5684b-05bd-472c-a7a8-64e11ea8146c_281x600.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zjWl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feea5684b-05bd-472c-a7a8-64e11ea8146c_281x600.jpeg" width="281" height="600" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/eea5684b-05bd-472c-a7a8-64e11ea8146c_281x600.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:600,&quot;width&quot;:281,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:28681,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://exphilned.substack.com/i/194710754?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feea5684b-05bd-472c-a7a8-64e11ea8146c_281x600.jpeg&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" title="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zjWl!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feea5684b-05bd-472c-a7a8-64e11ea8146c_281x600.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zjWl!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feea5684b-05bd-472c-a7a8-64e11ea8146c_281x600.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zjWl!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feea5684b-05bd-472c-a7a8-64e11ea8146c_281x600.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zjWl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feea5684b-05bd-472c-a7a8-64e11ea8146c_281x600.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Kant mixing mustard, drawing by Friedrich Hagermann, 1801</figcaption></figure></div><p>Hvis vi ikke anstrenger oss for &#229; bruke fornuften &#8211; feighet og latskap &#8211;, mister vi muligheten til &#229; underkaste oss den universelle moralloven, til &#229; maksimere andelen av god vilje i formuleringen av hver enkelt maksime, som er ensbetydende med selvbestemmelse og autoritet over oss selv. Feighet og latskap er &#229;rsaker til umyndighet.</p><p>Et eksempel p&#229; intellektuell feighet er frav&#230;ret av kritisk tenkning n&#229;r det gjelder &#229; danne seg en mening om et aktuelt tema - s&#229;rbarhet for pseudovitenskap og manipulasjon. Det &#229; opprettholde seg selv i live illustrerer ogs&#229; Kants begrep om maksimen og moralloven. Det finnes b&#229;de en plikt og en tilb&#248;yelighet til &#229; holde seg i live. S&#229; lenge denne tilb&#248;yeligheten lever i beste velg&#229;ende, har handlingen &#171;intet moralsk innhold&#187; : livet tas vare p&#229; <em>&#171;i overeenstemmelse med plikten, men ikke av plikten&#187;</em>. Men s&#229; snart denne tilb&#248;yeligheten forsvinner, lidelse eller livets ende, og handlingen blir totalt styrt av plikt: maksimen f&#229;r maksimalt moralsk innhold. (Kant, 1785/2021, s.348)</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Kilder</em></p><p><em>Kant, I. (1784/2021). Besvarelse av sp&#248;rsm&#229;let: Hva er opplysning? I &#216;. Skar (Overs.), I E. Skjervheim, G. Skirbekk, &amp; A. Gilje (Red.), Vite, v&#230;re, gj&#248;re: Exphil: l&#230;rebok med originaltekster (s. 25-31). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.</em></p><p><em>Kant, I. (1785/2021). Grunnlegging av moralens metafysikk. I E. Schwabe-Hansen (Overs.), I E. Skjervheim, G. Skirbekk, &amp; A. Gilje (Red.), Vite, v&#230;re, gj&#248;re: Exphil: l&#230;rebok med originaltekster (s. 344-363). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.</em></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[#9 Platon og sjelens udødelighet]]></title><description><![CDATA[I Platons dialog Faidon fortelles det om Sokrates&#8217; siste timer : Sokrates/Platon &#248;nsker der &#229; fullf&#248;re sin p&#229;visning av sjelens ud&#248;delighet. Disse &#171;ud&#248;delighetsbevisene&#187; er avgj&#248;rende for &#229; forst&#229; Platons f&#248;rste tanker om metafysikk og erkjennelsesteori: For det f&#248;rste, &#171;erindringsargumentet&#187; (65a-67a og 72e-78b) g&#229;r ut p&#229; at &#171;l&#230;ring er &#229; erindre&#187; og &#171;v&#229;r (gjen)erindring viser at v&#229;re sjeler har bevissthet f&#248;r v&#229;r f&#248;dsel&#187; ; dette er idel&#230;ren : &#171;kunnskap om ideene finnes forut for sansefonemmelsene og f&#248;dselen&#187;. Det andre, s&#229;kalte &#171;sykliske argumentet&#187; (70c-72e), er basert p&#229; observasjonen at &#171;alle tings tilblivelse skjer fra deres motsetning, blant annet liv fra d&#248;d og d&#248;d fra liv i et kretsl&#248;p&#187; ; dette bekrefter alts&#229; l&#230;ren om gjenf&#248;delse, om at &#171;d&#248;den gir opphav til nytt liv&#187;. For det tredje baseres &#171;affinitetsargumentet&#187; (78b-84b) p&#229; sjelens egen natur : Sjelen og ideene er beslektet fordi de er, i motsetning til kroppen, like uforgjengelige og usynlige, og dermed ikke sammensatt. Til sist, &#171;det endelige argumentet&#187; (102a-107a) bygges p&#229; observasjonen at &#171;tingene oppst&#229;r fra sine motsetninger [og] ting som har en ide til bestemmelse, utelukker den motsatte ideen&#187;. Da sjelen &#171;har liv til bestemmelse&#187; utelukker den d&#248;den, og er dermed uforgjengelig. (Kraggerud i Platon, 2001, s.15-16)]]></description><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/platon-og-sjelens-uddelighet</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/platon-og-sjelens-uddelighet</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Galois]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 09 Jul 2026 15:50:00 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3uUw!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F50969d42-3d4f-4dad-a796-6be3a8a7e07a_1280x720.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Om sjelens ud&#248;delighet</em> og <em>Faidon, Platon (ca. 1600 ord)</em></p><p><em>Denne teksten presenterer Platons dialog Faidon og dens filosofiske argumenter for sjelens ud&#248;delighet. M&#229;let med teksten er &#229; analysere og forklare de fire hovedargumentene Platon bruker for &#229; bevise sjelens ud&#248;delighet, samt &#229; introdusere hans sentrale begreper om former og den sansbare verden.</em></p><p>Et potensielt eksamenssp&#248;rsm&#229;l som dette essayet tar for seg, er alts&#229; &#171;Hvordan argumenterer Platon for sjelenes ud&#248;delighet?&#187;</p><div><hr></div><p>I Platons dialog <em>Faidon</em> fortelles det om Sokrates&#8217; siste timer : Sokrates/Platon &#248;nsker der &#229; fullf&#248;re sin p&#229;visning av sjelens ud&#248;delighet. Disse <em>&#171;ud&#248;delighetsbevisene&#187;</em> er avgj&#248;rende for &#229; forst&#229; Platons f&#248;rste tanker om metafysikk og erkjennelsesteori: For det f&#248;rste, <em>&#171;erindringsargumentet&#187;</em> (65a-67a og 72e-78b) g&#229;r ut p&#229; at <em>&#171;l&#230;ring er &#229; erindre&#187;</em> og <em>&#171;v&#229;r (gjen)erindring viser at v&#229;re sjeler har bevissthet f&#248;r v&#229;r f&#248;dsel&#187;</em> ; dette er idel&#230;ren : <em>&#171;kunnskap om ideene finnes forut for sansefonemmelsene og f&#248;dselen&#187;</em>. Det andre, s&#229;kalte <em>&#171;sykliske argumentet&#187; </em>(70c-72e), er basert p&#229; observasjonen at <em>&#171;alle tings tilblivelse skjer fra deres motsetning, blant annet liv fra d&#248;d og d&#248;d fra liv i et kretsl&#248;p&#187; </em>; dette bekrefter alts&#229; l&#230;ren om gjenf&#248;delse, om at <em>&#171;d&#248;den gir opphav til nytt liv&#187;</em>. For det tredje baseres <em>&#171;affinitetsargumentet&#187; </em>(78b-84b) p&#229; sjelens egen natur : Sjelen og ideene er beslektet fordi de er, i motsetning til kroppen, like uforgjengelige og usynlige, og dermed ikke sammensatt. Til sist, <em>&#171;det endelige argumentet&#187;</em> (102a-107a) bygges p&#229; observasjonen at <em>&#171;tingene oppst&#229;r fra sine motsetninger [og] ting som har en ide til bestemmelse, utelukker den motsatte ideen&#187;.</em> Da sjelen <em>&#171;har liv til bestemmelse&#187;</em> utelukker den d&#248;den, og er dermed uforgjengelig. (Kraggerud i Platon, 2001, s.15-16)</p><p>Sjelen er det motsatte av d&#248;den, s&#229; den er uforgjengelig (endelig argument). Etter kroppens d&#248;d befinner sjelen seg p&#229; et sted, der den frekventerer ideene som er evige (affinitetsargumentet), som er det vi husker n&#229;r vi l&#230;rer (erindringsargumentet og id&#233;l&#230;ren), etter sjelens gjenf&#248;delse i en kropp, og s&#229; videre (syklisk argument og l&#230;ren om gjenf&#248;delsen).</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3uUw!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F50969d42-3d4f-4dad-a796-6be3a8a7e07a_1280x720.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3uUw!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F50969d42-3d4f-4dad-a796-6be3a8a7e07a_1280x720.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3uUw!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F50969d42-3d4f-4dad-a796-6be3a8a7e07a_1280x720.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3uUw!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F50969d42-3d4f-4dad-a796-6be3a8a7e07a_1280x720.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3uUw!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F50969d42-3d4f-4dad-a796-6be3a8a7e07a_1280x720.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3uUw!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F50969d42-3d4f-4dad-a796-6be3a8a7e07a_1280x720.jpeg" width="1280" height="720" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3uUw!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F50969d42-3d4f-4dad-a796-6be3a8a7e07a_1280x720.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3uUw!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F50969d42-3d4f-4dad-a796-6be3a8a7e07a_1280x720.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3uUw!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F50969d42-3d4f-4dad-a796-6be3a8a7e07a_1280x720.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3uUw!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F50969d42-3d4f-4dad-a796-6be3a8a7e07a_1280x720.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Faidon er den f&#248;rste av Platons dialoger som introduserer formene, som alts&#229; befolker id&#233;verdenen. Sokrates/Platon foretar en &#171;grundig utredning av &#229;rsaksforholdet ved tilblivelse og undergang&#187; : Som ung mann fattet han interesse for naturvitenskap, i h&#229;p om at dette ville forklare<em> &#171;hvorgor hver ting blir til, hvorfor den g&#229;r til grunne og hvorfor den eksisterer&#187;</em>. Han tok for seg Axagagoras&#8217; teori, som syntes &#229; f&#248;re alt tilbake til fornuften, som <em>&#171;ordner alt og er dets &#229;rsak&#187;</em>. Det Sokrates f&#248;rst forst&#229;r av Axagagoras, vinner ham: Hvis fornuften er <em>&#171;den ordnende instans&#187;</em>, s&#229; plassert den <em>&#171;hver ting slik det [blir] best&#187;</em>. &#197; forst&#229; &#229;rsakene betyr da &#229; gj&#248;re rede for <em>&#171;hva som [er] best for den enkelte ting, og hva som er det felles gode for alt&#187;</em>. Men ved n&#230;rmere ettersyn relaterer Axagore til syvende og sist alt til materien. Alle forklaringene finnes i <em>&#171;luft, eter og vann og mye annet urimelig&#187;</em>, helt frem til Sokrates&#8217; ford&#248;mmelse, som angivelig ikke skulle skyldes athenernes dom, men <em>&#171;stemmelyder, luftbevegelser og h&#248;rselsinntrykk og et utall lignende fenomener&#187;</em>. For Sokrates er det klart at mennesket ikke gj&#248;r hva det gj&#248;r p&#229; grunn av at det har <em>&#171;slike ting som ben, muskler og alt [det] ellers har&#187;</em>, men <em>&#171;p&#229; grunn av [sitt] valg av det beste&#187;. </em>Han fortsetter derfor med &#229; unders&#248;ke &#229;rsakene, men er redd for at sjelen hans skal bli forblindet, dvs. villedet, <em>&#171;om [han stirrer] p&#229; tingene med &#248;yene&#187; </em>og stoler p&#229; sansene. Han f&#248;ler derfor at han m&#229; ta sin <em>&#171;tilflukt til resonnementer og i dem unders&#248;ke sannheten om det v&#230;rende&#187;</em>. Det som gj&#248;r sannheten, er styrken i resonnementet : <em>&#171;Jeg legger hver gang til grunn det resonnement jeg vurderer som sterkest, og regner som sant det jeg finner &#229; v&#230;re i samsvar med dette [&#8230;], med det som ikke gj&#248;r det, regner jeg som usant&#187;</em>. Likevel presiserer han: &#197;rsaken til hver ting er at det ta del i en form, slik som for eksempel det vakre : <em>&#171;Om noe annet er vakkert utenom selve det vakre, er det ikke vakkert av noen som helst annet grunn enn at det har del i den skj&#248;nnheten. Og det samme p&#229;star jeg om alt annet&#187;</em> eller senere <em>&#171;det [er] ikke noe annet som gj&#248;r noe vakkert enn n&#230;rv&#230;ret av eller delaktigheten i selve det skj&#248;nne&#187;</em>. (Platon, 2021, s.178-182)</p><p>Formbegrepet introduseres tidligere i Faidon, n&#229;r Sokrates omtaler filosofene. (64-65) Filosofen frykter ikke, men lengter etter d&#248;den, som bel&#248;nner hans <em>&#171;forberedelse og &#248;velse p&#229; d&#248;den&#187;</em>. (Kraggerud i Platon, 2001, s.15) Med Platons ord : <em>&#171;Alle de som p&#229; riktig m&#229;te beskjeftiger seg med filosofi [&#8230;] trener seg nettopp i &#229; d&#248; og &#229; v&#230;re d&#248;d&#187;</em>. En annen ting som skiller filosofer fra folk flest, er at de <em>&#171;i st&#248;rst mulig ustrekning l&#248;ser sjelen fra dens samsvar med kroppen&#187;</em> og<em> &#171;s&#229; langt som mulig holder seg unna [kroppen] og konsentrerer seg p&#229; sjelen&#187;</em>. Som dikterne skriver, kan man verken h&#248;re eller se noe n&#248;yaktig : Sjelen f&#229;r tak i sannheten, men <em>&#171;n&#229;r den fors&#248;ker &#229; betrakte noe sammen med kroppen, da blir den villedet av denne&#187;</em>. (Platon, 2001, s.25-26) <em>&#171;Virkelig innsikt vinnes [alts&#229;] f&#248;rst etter d&#248;den ettersom kroppen er et hinder for visdommen.&#187;</em> (Kraggerud i Platon, 2001, s.15) En filosof som hele livet har strebet etter sannheten, kan bare glede seg over d&#248;den, som frigj&#248;r sjelen fra kroppen, slik at den endelig kan n&#229; frem til sannheten om hver ting. Men tilbake til formene.</p><p>Et viktig begrep her er sjelens eksistens <em>&#171;helt i seg selv&#187;</em> : Den <em>&#171;tenker vel best n&#229;r intet av det kroppslige forstyrrer den&#187;</em>, n&#229;r den blir <em>&#171;mest alene for seg selv&#187;</em>. P&#229; samme m&#229;te finnes det noe som er rettferdig i seg selv, og godt i seg selv, og skj&#248;nt i seg selv. &#197; n&#230;rme seg sannheten om tingene er &#229; forst&#229; <em>&#171;det mest egentlige&#187;</em> i disse, kort sagt deres <em>&#171;vesen&#187;</em>, <em>&#171;hva hver ting faktisk er&#187; </em>: Vi n&#230;rmer oss alts&#229; sannheten ved &#229; <em>&#171;betrakte tingene i seg selv med sjelen alene&#187;</em>. (Platon, 2001, s.27-28) Former er nettopp denne essensen av ting, samt disse tingene, som det rettferdige, det gode eller det vakre, som er vesener <em>&#171;helt i seg selv&#187; </em>: Former er vesener <em>&#171;som er det de er i kraft av seg selv&#187;</em>.</p><p>Det er her verdt &#229; merke seg at det som kalles <em>&#171;Platons forml&#230;re er en rasjonell rekonstruksjon av Platons doktrine&#187;. &#171;I en slik rekonstruksjon fors&#248;ker forskerne &#229; finne frem til et sett av prinsipper eller teser som til sammen gj&#248;r det mulig &#229; vise hvorfor Platon sier det han gj&#248;r om formene, sjelen og andre metafysiske ting.&#187; </em>(Silverman, 2022)</p><p>Formenes motstykke er partikul&#230;re ting. Intuitivt er partikul&#230;re ting alt som finnes i den sansbare verden: hunden min Ajax, Venus eller datamaskinen min. Men vi kan <em>&#171;rekonstruere&#187;</em> n&#230;rmere hva Sokrates/Platon forst&#229;r med det begrepet. I logikk og filosofi er et predikat en egenskap som kan tilskrives en ting : I for eksempel &#171;Sokrates er et menneske&#187; er mennesket et predikat til Sokrates. En partikul&#230;r ting forst&#229;s som det som har visse egenskaper som predikat, men som ikke er predikat for noe annet enn seg selv. Former, derimot, er predikater om andre ting enn dem selv. (Silverman, 2022)</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6XJz!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97d26174-c5a4-45be-8330-02eea022244d_423x598.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6XJz!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97d26174-c5a4-45be-8330-02eea022244d_423x598.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6XJz!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97d26174-c5a4-45be-8330-02eea022244d_423x598.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6XJz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97d26174-c5a4-45be-8330-02eea022244d_423x598.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6XJz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97d26174-c5a4-45be-8330-02eea022244d_423x598.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6XJz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97d26174-c5a4-45be-8330-02eea022244d_423x598.jpeg" width="423" height="598" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6XJz!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97d26174-c5a4-45be-8330-02eea022244d_423x598.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6XJz!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97d26174-c5a4-45be-8330-02eea022244d_423x598.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6XJz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97d26174-c5a4-45be-8330-02eea022244d_423x598.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6XJz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97d26174-c5a4-45be-8330-02eea022244d_423x598.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Faidon eller om sjelens ud&#248;delighet, Platon, Mendelssohns overs&#230;ttelse og omskrivelse, 1779, National Library Denmark (Statsbiblioteket)</p><p>Vi l&#230;rer mer om former i l&#248;pet av Sokrates/Platons argumentasjon om sjelens ud&#248;delighet. Sokrates&#8217; Erindringsargumentet g&#229;r som f&#248;lger. For &#229; huske noe, m&#229; man ha sett det f&#248;r. Noen ganger fremkaller en ting en annen som er forbundet med den. Den elskedes lyre fremkaller sin eier. Man erindre ting p&#229; grunn av dels av likhet og dels av ulikhet. Vi vet alts&#229; om begrepet &#171;likhet&#187;. Men ingen ting i den synlige verden er helt like; tr&#230;r eller sten er alle ulike. <em>&#171;Vi m&#229; alts&#229; ha en forh&#229;ndsviten om det like fra f&#248;r den tid da vi f&#248;rste gang s&#229; de like tingene og tenkte p&#229; at alle disse ting strebet etter &#229; v&#230;re som det like, men sto tilbake for det.&#187; </em>Kunnskap er alts&#229;<em> &#171;ikke noe annet enn en erindring&#187;.</em> Sokrates&#8217; samtalepartneren gjenopptar demonstrasjonen : <em>&#171;If&#248;lge denne teorien m&#229; vi vel ha l&#230;rt oss i en tidligere periode det vi n&#229; kan huske. Men dette ville v&#230;re umulig om ikke v&#229;r sjel var til noe sted f&#248;r den ble til i sin n&#229;v&#230;rende menneskeskikkelse. Derfor ser det ut til at sjelen er noe ud&#248;delig&#187;. </em>(Platon, 2021, s.174-175) Kort oppsummert, kan vi ikke kjenne likhetsbegrepet gjennom erfaring, siden ingen ting er helt like, selv om de tenderer mot likhet, men n&#248;dvendigvis fra en eksponering f&#248;r sjelen ble f&#248;dt for ideen om (dvs. formen) &#171;det like&#187;. S&#229; vi l&#230;rer av erindringsargumentet at former er fullkomne, og hva partikul&#230;re ting etterstreber, men ikke klarer &#229; oppn&#229;.</p><p>I affinitetsargumentet l&#230;rer vi at partikul&#230;re ting, som er synlige, er sammensatte og aldri i samme tilstand, og av den grunn forgjengelige; mens sjelen og formene er enkle : De befinner seg <em>&#171;i sin enhetlighet og selvstendighet p&#229; samme m&#229;te og i samme tilstand bestandig og er aldri noen gang og p&#229; ingen m&#229;te utsatt for noen forrandring&#187;</em>. (Platon, 2001, s.44)</p><p>If&#248;lge Faidons Platon er den sanselige verden et bilde, en ufullkommen verden av forandring. Den oppfattes kun gjennom kroppen, som er et fengsel av begj&#230;r og en distraksjon fra sannheten. Likevel er tingene i den sanselige verden, de partikul&#230;re tingene, delaktige i former. Filosofen kan gjennom disiplin holde kroppen i sjakk (Platon, 2001, s.30), og sjelen kan trene seg opp i den sanselige verden til &#229; gjenkjenne den formen tingen deltar i. P&#229; denne m&#229;ten kommer den n&#230;rmere sannheten. Platons epistemologi gj&#248;r rede for hva kunnskap er og hvordan den oppn&#229;s &#8211; kontemplasjon av former av en sjel som er adskilt fra kroppen &#8211; men synes ikke &#229; v&#230;re skeptisk til kunnskap. (Silverman, 2022)</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Kilder</em></p><p><em>Platon. (2021). Utdrag fra Faidon. I S. Watzl (Red.), Virkeligheten &#8211; hvordan det ser ut og hvordan det er. I E. Skjervheim, G. Skirbekk, &amp; A. Gilje (Red.), Vite, v&#230;re, gj&#248;re: Exphil: l&#230;rebok med originaltekster (s. 174-187). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.</em></p><p><em>Silverman, A. (2022). Plato&#8217;s Middle Period Metaphysics and Epistemology. I E. N. Zalta &amp; U. Nodelman (Red.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (H&#248;st 2022 utg.). Stanford: Stanford University.</em></p><p><em>Platon. (ca. 385 f.Kr./2001). Faidon. I E. Kraggerud (Overs.), I Platons samlede verker: Bind IV (s. 7-98). Oslo: Vidarforlagets Kulturbibliotek.</em></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[#8 Om metaetikk]]></title><description><![CDATA[Meta-etikken er ute etter &#229; forst&#229; &#171;de metafysiske, epistemologiske, semantiske og psykologiske forutsetningene og engasjementene bak moralsk tenkning, diskusjon og praksis&#187;. Metaetikkens problemstillinger er derfor alltid abstrakte: De tar et skritt tilbake fra spesifikke moralske debatter, holdninger og p&#229;stander, og skaper en n&#248;ytral bakgrunn mot hvilken disse debattene, holdningene og p&#229;standene kan vurderes. Metaetikken er ikke ukontroversiell: Noen kan hevde at den svekker premissene for moralen som &#171;folk tar for gitt&#187; n&#229;r de pr&#248;ver &#229; forst&#229; dem, og gj&#248;r dem mistenkelige. Det som st&#229;r p&#229; spill, er en degradering av &#171;v&#229;r moralske sans&#187;. (Sayre-McCord, 2023) Kort sagt, en oppl&#248;sning av troen p&#229; (viktigheten av) moralen, i kraft av &#229; stille sp&#248;rsm&#229;l ved dens grunnlag. Spesielt kan det hevdes at moralteori ikke har noen innflytelse over praksis : &#171;Hva vi gj&#248;r&#187;, viser psykologisk forskning, &#171;avhenger i stor grad av hvordan vi f&#248;ler oss i &#248;yeblikket, og av situasjonen vi finner oss i.&#187; Dessuten kan verdien av en moralteori hvis opphavsmann ikke ser ut til &#229; v&#230;re &#171;moralsk prisverdig folk&#187;, betviles, som n&#229;r Aristoteles ser for seg en lavere moralsk status for kvinner og slaver, eller hos Kant og hans rasehierarki. (Watzl, 2021, s.437)]]></description><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/om-metaetikk</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/om-metaetikk</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Galois]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Wed, 08 Jul 2026 15:52:00 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-S15!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88073309-1fc1-44c2-9d6f-8b21cdba8ee2_1280x853.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Vi tar utgangspunkt i kapitlet som gir en innf&#248;ring i metaetikk i Exphil-pensumet. For &#229; belyse temaet trekker vi s&#230;rlig p&#229; diskusjoner fra Platon og Aristoteles, men viser ogs&#229; til nyere innf&#248;ringer i metaetikk og bidrag fra moderne filosofer. Vi skal se n&#230;rmere p&#229; hva som kjennetegner metaetiske sp&#248;rsm&#229;l, og hvorfor de fortsetter &#229; utfordre tenkere den dag i dag. (ca. 1000 ord)</em></p><div><hr></div><p>Meta-etikken er ute etter &#229; forst&#229; <em>&#171;de metafysiske, epistemologiske, semantiske og psykologiske forutsetningene og engasjementene bak moralsk tenkning, diskusjon og praksis&#187;. </em>Metaetikkens problemstillinger er derfor alltid abstrakte: De tar et skritt tilbake fra spesifikke moralske debatter, holdninger og p&#229;stander, og skaper en n&#248;ytral bakgrunn mot hvilken disse debattene, holdningene og p&#229;standene kan vurderes. Metaetikken er ikke ukontroversiell: Noen kan hevde at den svekker premissene for moralen som <em>&#171;folk tar for gitt&#187;</em> n&#229;r de pr&#248;ver &#229; forst&#229; dem, og gj&#248;r dem mistenkelige. Det som st&#229;r p&#229; spill, er en degradering av <em>&#171;v&#229;r moralske sans&#187;</em>. (Sayre-McCord, 2023) Kort sagt, en oppl&#248;sning av troen p&#229; (viktigheten av) moralen, i kraft av &#229; stille sp&#248;rsm&#229;l ved dens grunnlag. Spesielt kan det hevdes at moralteori ikke har noen innflytelse over praksis : <em>&#171;Hva vi gj&#248;r&#187;</em>, viser psykologisk forskning,<em> &#171;avhenger i stor grad av hvordan vi f&#248;ler oss i &#248;yeblikket, og av situasjonen vi finner oss i.&#187; </em>Dessuten kan verdien av en moralteori hvis opphavsmann ikke ser ut til &#229; v&#230;re <em>&#171;moralsk prisverdig folk&#187;</em>, betviles, som n&#229;r Aristoteles ser for seg en lavere moralsk status for kvinner og slaver, eller hos Kant og hans rasehierarki. (Watzl, 2021, s.437)</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-S15!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88073309-1fc1-44c2-9d6f-8b21cdba8ee2_1280x853.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-S15!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88073309-1fc1-44c2-9d6f-8b21cdba8ee2_1280x853.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-S15!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88073309-1fc1-44c2-9d6f-8b21cdba8ee2_1280x853.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-S15!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88073309-1fc1-44c2-9d6f-8b21cdba8ee2_1280x853.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-S15!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88073309-1fc1-44c2-9d6f-8b21cdba8ee2_1280x853.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-S15!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88073309-1fc1-44c2-9d6f-8b21cdba8ee2_1280x853.jpeg" width="1280" height="853" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/88073309-1fc1-44c2-9d6f-8b21cdba8ee2_1280x853.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:853,&quot;width&quot;:1280,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-S15!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88073309-1fc1-44c2-9d6f-8b21cdba8ee2_1280x853.jpeg&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" title="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-S15!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88073309-1fc1-44c2-9d6f-8b21cdba8ee2_1280x853.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-S15!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88073309-1fc1-44c2-9d6f-8b21cdba8ee2_1280x853.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-S15!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88073309-1fc1-44c2-9d6f-8b21cdba8ee2_1280x853.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-S15!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88073309-1fc1-44c2-9d6f-8b21cdba8ee2_1280x853.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Metaetiske sp&#248;rsm&#229;l springer likevel ut av en naturlig nysgjerrighet p&#229; moralens natur, og er gjennomg&#229;ende i filosofihistorien. I Platons Republikkens f&#248;rste bok fastsl&#229;r kynikeren Thrasymachus at <em>&#171;det rettferdige er ingen annet enn det som gagner den sterkere&#187;, </em>som er <em>&#171;kloke og dyktige&#187;</em>, da de <em>&#171;er i stand til &#229; tvinge stater og folk under sin makt&#187;</em>. (Platon, 1946, s.34) Rettferdighet er en fabel for de svake, arrangert til fordel for et mindretall, og dermed en unyttig byrde. (Sayre-McCord, 2023) Glaukon derimot veier fordeler og ulemper ved urettferdighet : &#197; <em>&#171;gj&#248;re urett er av natur et gode, det &#229; lide urett et onde, men [&#8230;] det siste er et meget st&#248;rre onde enn det f&#248;rste er en gode&#187;</em>. Slik er dermed <em>&#171;rettferdighetens opprinelse og vesen&#187; </em>: En <em>&#171;middelvei mellom det st&#248;rste gode &#8211; &#229; gj&#248;re urett uten &#229; bli straffet &#8211; og det st&#248;rste onde &#8211; &#229; lide urett uten &#229; kunne hevne seg&#187;</em>. Alle skapninger, og s&#230;rlig b&#229;de de rettferdige og de urettferdige, drives av en samme <em>&#171;tvang til makt&#187;. </em>De streber etter makten som et gode. Rettferdigheter er ikke <em>&#171;et gode i seg selv&#187; </em>og <em>&#171;ingen [er] frivillig rettferdig&#187; </em>: <em>&#171;Det er bare lovens makt som tvinger en til aktelse for like rett&#187;</em>. (Platon, 1946, s.67-69) Det som er rett, er det som st&#229;r i loven, garantisten for et bedre samfunn. Til sist, Sokrates forklarer Thrasymachus og Glaukon hvorvidt rettferdighet ikke er en menneskelig oppfinnelse:<em> &#171;Den tilbyr uavhengige og evige standarder som menneskelig praksis, konvensjoner og institusjoner kan bed&#248;mmes opp mot&#187;</em>. (Sayre-McCord, 2023)</p><p>Dette er noen av sp&#248;rsm&#229;lene som opptar metaetikken : For det f&#248;rste, hva er moralens natur? Realismen hevder at det finnes objektive moralske verdier. De virulente moralske debattene og ideen om moralske fremskritt (i historien) taler for dette: De ville v&#230;re meningsl&#248;se uten sanne verdier som motpartens meninger, eller fremskrittet, kan vurderes opp mot. (Watzl, 2021, s.438) Det motsatte partiet er det antirealistiske: Moralske verdier er alltid avhengige av dem som b&#230;rer dem, deres tanker eller f&#248;lelser, deres skikker og praksiser &#8211; Sharon Street sier <em>&#171;sinnesavhengige&#187; </em>moralske verdier, verdier alts&#229; som formes bare av individuelle mentale tilstander : bekymringer, &#248;nsker, tilb&#248;yeligheter eller emosjoner. En delmengde av antirealistene er relativister: Moralske verdier er kontingente av tid eller kultur. For ikke-relativistiske antirealister, er moralske verdier avhengig av <em>&#171;aspekter ved menneskesinnet&#187; </em>som alle mennesker har til felles. Sharon Street, for eksempel, er interessert i en evolusjon&#230;r genealogi av moral. De moralske verdiene som synes &#229; best&#229; p&#229; tvers av tidsaldre og kulturer, skyldes utelukkende <em>&#171;den tilfeldige evolusjonsprosessen gjennom naturlig utvalg&#187;. </em>Til sis, en nihilist g&#229;r lenger enn &#229; tilskrive moralske verdier en kontingens til visse s&#230;regenheter (relativisme): Han benekter eksistensen av moralske verdier overhodet.</p><p>For det andre, en moralsk epistemologi tar sikte p&#229; &#229; etablere grunnlaget og betingelsene for moralsk kunnskap. For en moralsk skeptiker er det ikke mulig &#229; vite hva moralske verdier er &#8211; uansett om de eksisterer (realister) eller ikke (antirealister). For en rasjonalist er det mulig &#229; finne frem til moralske sannheter ved &#229; konsultere fornuften &#8211; hos Kant oppn&#229;s moral kunnskap fra syntetiske a-priori dommer. A priori, fordi det som er moralsk eller ikke, er det n&#248;dvendigvis, det vil si ubetinget, s&#230;rlig uavhengig av empirien. Syntetisk, fordi premissene for den moralske dommen, det som bed&#248;mmes, ikke inneholder dens konklusjon, om det som bed&#248;mmes er moralsk eller ikke. Det er ikke et analytisk resonnement ut fra det som skal bed&#248;mmes alene som f&#248;rer til dommen: Noe ytterligere, selve moralen i oss, m&#229; legges til for at det skal v&#230;re mulig &#229; bed&#248;mme. Kant er helt klart en antinaturalist: Naturalisten har noe av b&#229;de ontologen og epistemologen i metaetikken. Han hevder at moralske fakta er fakta som er holdningsuavhengige og naturlige. Han er en realist - og dermed en ontolog - n&#229;r han hevder at moralske fakta er uavhengige av agenters holdninger. Men moralske fakta er ogs&#229; naturlige i hans &#248;yne: De kan unders&#248;kes ved hjelp av den vitenskapelige metoden. Her er han en epistemolog. Den moralske epistemologen Kant er en rasjonalist som ikke kjenner moralske fakta fra naturen og empirien, men fra fornuften.</p><p>For det tredje kan innenfor metaetikken skilles mellom kognitivister og ikke-kognitivister. De diskuterer moralens spr&#229;k og psykologi: hva slags diskurs og hva slags mentale tilstander som former og ligger til grunn for det som anses som moralske utsagn. Her enes ikke-kognitivistene &#8211; generelt &#8211; om to teser: Den f&#248;rste, <em>&#171;semantisk ikke-faktualisme&#187;</em> (semantic nonfactualisme) <em>&#171;benekter at predikative moralske setninger uttrykker proposisjoner eller har substansielle sannhetsbetingelser&#187;</em>. Moralsk innhold kan ikke pr&#248;ves p&#229; sannhet eller usannhet. <em>&#171;Psykologisk ikke-kognitivisme&#187; (psychological non-cognitivism)</em> er deretter tesen som benekter at de sinnstilstandene som konvensjonelt uttrykkes ved moralske ytringer, er overbevisninger eller mentale tilstander. Moralske utsagn uttrykker ikke-kognitive holdninger, slik som f&#248;lelser (ekspresjonalisme, emosjonalisme). (van Roojen, 2024)</p><p>Alle er formet av sin egen moralske historie: Den moralen vi blir oppl&#230;rt til, p&#229;virkningen fra milj&#248;et. Vi kan derfor spore en <em>&#171; moralens genealogi &#187;</em>, alts&#229; de moralske f&#248;lelsenes, begrepenes eller holdningenes opprinnelse og historie - den store historien eller den personlige. (Watzl, 2021, s.440) Genealogien til v&#229;re moralske holdninger, mener Street, refleksjonen alts&#229; over deres opprinnelse, kan bidra til &#229; enten styrke eller undergrave disse holdningene.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Kilder</em></p><p><em>Watzl, S. (2021). Er moralen objektiv? I E. Skjervheim, G. Skirbekk, &amp; A. Gilje (Red.), Vite, v&#230;re, gj&#248;re: Exphil: l&#230;rebok med originaltekster (s.436-444). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.</em></p><p><em>Street, S. (2021). Er det egentlig noe som betyr noe, eller er vi bare evolusjon&#230;rt utviklet til &#229; tro det? I O. S. Davanger (Overs.), I E. Skjervheim, G. Skirbekk, &amp; A. Gilje (Red.), Vite, v&#230;re, gj&#248;re: Exphil: l&#230;rebok med originaltekster (s.445-453). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.</em></p><p><em>Platon. (ca. 380 f.Kr./1946). Staten. I H. M&#248;rland (Overs.), Staten: F&#248;rste del (Politisk bibliotek: Klassikerne nr. 1). Oslo: Dreyers Forlag.</em></p><p><em>van Roojen, M. (2024). Moral Cognitivism vs. Non-Cognitivism. I E. N. Zalta &amp; U. Nodelman (Red.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Sommer 2024 utg.). Stanford: Stanford University.</em></p><p><em>Lutz, M. (2024). Moral Naturalism. I E. N. Zalta &amp; U. Nodelman (Red.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Sommer 2024 utg.). Stanford: Stanford University.</em></p><p><em>Sayre-McCord, G. (2023). Metaethics. I E. N. Zalta &amp; U. Nodelman (Red.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (V&#229;r 2023 utg.). Stanford: Stanford University.</em></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[#7 Hobbes og Locke om naturtilstanden]]></title><description><![CDATA[Hobbes vier det trettende kapittelet i Leviathan til &#171;menneskenes naturlige tilstand med hensyn til deres lykke og ulykke&#187;. Menneskene er like fra naturens h&#229;nd, n&#229;r det gjelder b&#229;de kroppens og sjelens egenskaper. Denne likheten gjenspeiles i likheten i m&#229;lsetningene og forh&#229;pningene om &#229; n&#229; dem. Ambisjoner om det samme skaper fiender. De som finner glede i det, utvider sin makt utover det sikkerheten krever: Og de som kunne v&#230;re forn&#248;yd med ro, m&#229; gj&#248;re det samme for sin selvbevarelses skyld. Uenighet skyldes derfor konkurranse og mistro, men ogs&#229; &#230;reslyst, for &#171;enhver forventer at hans neste skal verdsette ham like h&#248;yt som han verdsetter seg selv&#187;, og reagerer p&#229; forakt med vold. (Hobbes, 2012, s.129-131)]]></description><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/hobbes-og-locke-om-naturtilstanden</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/hobbes-og-locke-om-naturtilstanden</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Galois]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Tue, 07 Jul 2026 15:55:00 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-suO!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ad21dec-b2bf-4037-813d-f3694ec989d2_1600x1361.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Essayet dr&#248;fter om Hobbes&#8217; og Lockes syn p&#229; naturtilstanden. (ca. 900 ord)</em></p><div><hr></div><p>Hobbes vier det trettende kapittelet i <em>Leviathan</em> til <em>&#171;menneskenes naturlige tilstand med hensyn til deres lykke og ulykke&#187;</em>. Menneskene er like fra naturens h&#229;nd, n&#229;r det gjelder b&#229;de kroppens og sjelens egenskaper. Denne likheten gjenspeiles i likheten i m&#229;lsetningene og forh&#229;pningene om &#229; n&#229; dem. Ambisjoner om det samme skaper fiender. De som finner glede i det, utvider sin makt utover det sikkerheten krever: Og de som kunne v&#230;re forn&#248;yd med ro, m&#229; gj&#248;re det samme for sin selvbevarelses skyld. Uenighet skyldes derfor konkurranse og mistro, men ogs&#229; &#230;reslyst, for <em>&#171;enhver forventer at hans neste skal verdsette ham like h&#248;yt som han verdsetter seg selv&#187;</em>, og reagerer p&#229; forakt med vold. (Hobbes, 2012, s.129-131)</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-suO!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ad21dec-b2bf-4037-813d-f3694ec989d2_1600x1361.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-suO!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ad21dec-b2bf-4037-813d-f3694ec989d2_1600x1361.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-suO!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ad21dec-b2bf-4037-813d-f3694ec989d2_1600x1361.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-suO!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ad21dec-b2bf-4037-813d-f3694ec989d2_1600x1361.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-suO!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ad21dec-b2bf-4037-813d-f3694ec989d2_1600x1361.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-suO!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ad21dec-b2bf-4037-813d-f3694ec989d2_1600x1361.jpeg" width="1456" height="1239" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/1ad21dec-b2bf-4037-813d-f3694ec989d2_1600x1361.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1239,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" title="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-suO!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ad21dec-b2bf-4037-813d-f3694ec989d2_1600x1361.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-suO!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ad21dec-b2bf-4037-813d-f3694ec989d2_1600x1361.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-suO!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ad21dec-b2bf-4037-813d-f3694ec989d2_1600x1361.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-suO!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ad21dec-b2bf-4037-813d-f3694ec989d2_1600x1361.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Photo of Andromeda galaxy taken from Macon, GA, USA</figcaption></figure></div><p>N&#229;r ingen <em>&#171;felles makt [&#8230;] kan holde dem alle i age&#187;</em>, lever alts&#229; mennesker <em>&#171;i den tilstand som kalles krig&#187;</em>. Mangelen p&#229; sikkerhet som f&#248;lger med, hindrer menneskelige evner i &#229; utvikle sitt fulle potensial : <em>&#171;Menneskets liv er ensomt, fattig, tarvelig, dyrisk og kort&#187;</em>. Det kan innvendes at denne opprinnelige krigstilstanden aldri har eksistert. For &#229; bli overbevist om dens sannsynlighet, er det nok &#229; se p&#229; de forholdsregler som alle tar til daglig, p&#229; innbyggerne i Amerika som lever p&#229; <em>&#171;den dyriske m&#229;ten&#187; </em>som er beskrevet, og p&#229; tilb&#248;yeligheten til borgerkrig selv blant dem som har levd under et fredelig styre f&#248;r. (Hobbes, 2012, s.133)</p><p>Uten makt finnes det ingen lov, og uten lov har <em>&#171;begrepene rett og urett, rettferdighet og urettferdighet, [&#8230;] ingen plass&#187;</em>. Det finnes p&#229; samme m&#229;te ingen eiendom, <em>&#171;intet klart mitt og ditt&#187;</em>. I Hobbes&#8217; naturtilstand oppn&#229;s den eneste form for eiendom gjennom makt og tyveri : Hva en <em>&#171;kan skaffe seg, og da bare s&#229; lenge han kan holde p&#229; det&#187;</em>. Det er b&#229;de lidenskapen &#8211; frykten for &#229; d&#248; og &#248;nsket om et komfortabelt liv &#8211; og fornuften som driver folk til &#229; bli <em>&#171;fredelige&#187;. </em>(Hobbes, 2012, s.134)</p><p>Er Lockes naturtilstand veldig annerledes? Denne er <em>&#171;fri, men preget av frykt og konstant fare&#187; </em>: Den er fylt av <em>&#171;konger og likemenn&#187;</em>, som vi kan anta alle ha, som hos Hobbes, de samme m&#229;lene og de samme forh&#229;pningene om &#229; n&#229; dem, og antagelig preges p&#229; samme m&#229;te av konkurranse, mistro og &#230;reslyst. Eiendom, sier Locke, er <em>&#171;utrygg og usikker&#187;</em>. Motiveres mennesket ikke av <em>&#171;lidenskaper&#187;</em>, s&#230;rlig frykt, som hos Hobbes, til &#229; forlate Lockes naturtilstand ? (Hobbes, 2012, s.134 ; Locke, 2021, s.477-478)</p><p>En parallell lesning av de to statsfilosofene tyder imidlertid p&#229; viktige skillnader. Lockes naturtilstand kjennetegnes av frihet innenfor de grensene som naturlovene setter. Denne naturloven er fornuften selv. Den tillater <em>&#171;&#229; bestemme over sine handlinger og disponere over sin eiensom og sin person&#187;</em>, men forbyr &#248;deleggelse: av seg selv eller av andre og deres eiendom. Den viktigste plikten her er &#229; opprettholde seg selv som Guds skapning. Ved &#229; opprettholde andres liv og eiendom, unng&#229;r man selv &#229; bli truet. Som unntak tillater loven &#229; skade som en rettferdig straff for forbrytelser. (Locke, 2021, s.461)</p><p>Vi kan dermed si at Lockes naturtilstand er preget av naturlov og naturlige rettigheter. Lenge f&#248;r Locke, gjenspeiler begrepet naturlov ideen om at det finnes <em>&#171;moralske sannheter&#187;</em> som gjelder for alle mennesker, uavhengig av sted og hva slags overenskomster de har. Mens naturlov la vekt p&#229; plikter, vektla naturrettighetene normalt privilegier eller krav som et individ har rett til. Enkelte kritikere, som Leo Strauss, mener at Lockes overordnede rett til selvoppholdelse har forrang fremfor naturlovene, og konkluderer med at Locke <em>&#171;m&#229; v&#230;re enig med Hobbes om menneskets grunnleggende egeninteresse</em>&#187;. Andre tolker naturloven som overordnet: Retten til liv, helse, frihet og eiendom er en f&#248;lge av p&#229;budet om ikke &#229; &#248;delegge. Rettigheter med andre ord er til for &#229; sikre at plikter blir oppfylt. (Tuckness, 2024) Vi leser heller at det finnes et n&#248;ytralt rom mellom rettigheter og plikter: retten til &#229; disponere over seg selv og sin eiendom s&#229; lenge naturens lov &#8211; s&#229; lenge opprettholdesen av seg selv og andre &#8211; ikke krenkes. Vi kan dessuten gi Simmons (se Tuckness, 2024) rett i hans tolkning : Naturloven synes &#229; v&#230;re at s&#229; mye som mulig av menneskene skal opprettholdes. I utilitaristisk &#229;nd formuleres noen ganger regler og plikter som et middel for &#229; regnskapsmessig oppn&#229; dette m&#229;let. Betegnende nok kan forbrytelser straffes av enhver <em>&#171;i den grad som er tilstrekkelig til &#229; kompensere den krenkede og t&#248;yle lovbryteren&#187;</em> (Locke, 2021, s.463): Straff kompenserer mer enn den refser, den fortsetter &#229; tjene plikten til &#229; opprettholde mest mulig av menneskeheten og dens eiendom. Tonen er likevel kantiansk n&#229;r Locke tar opp den forstandige Richard Hookers mektelige maksimer : Behandle nesten slik vi selv &#248;nsker &#229; bli behandlet, i kraft av v&#229;r like natur. (Locke, 2021, s.463)</p><p>Naturloven er fornuft, og dens praktiske balanse med naturrettighetene orkestreres p&#229; en n&#230;rmest bokholdersk m&#229;te. Dette er langt fra Hobbes&#8217; opprinnelige krigstilstand, hvor rettighetene rekker s&#229; langt som makt og begj&#230;r, mens naturretten synes &#229; v&#230;re det eneste praktiske imperativet for &#229; etterstrebe fred som et gode. (Lloyd, 2022) Lockes naturtilstand er ikke bare forut for samfunnet: Det er menneskenes tilstand (seg imellom) n&#229;r de ikke er bundet av samfunnskontrakten. S&#230;rlig hvis staten oppl&#248;ses, g&#229;r menneskene tilbake til naturtilstanden &#8211; og er frie til &#229; kontrahere p&#229; nytt.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Kilder</em></p><p><em>Locke, J. (1689/2021). Om borgerstyret. I L. Holm-Hansen &amp; A. Dunker (Overs.), I E. Skjervheim, G. Skirbekk, &amp; A. Gilje (Red.), Vite, v&#230;re, gj&#248;re: Exphil: l&#230;rebok med originaltekster (s.461-480). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.</em></p><p><em>Hobbes, T. (1651/2012). Leviathan, eller En kirkelig og sivil stats innhold, form og makt: Del 1 og 2. I O. Lausund (Overs.), Leviathan. Oslo: Vidarforl.</em></p><p><em>Tuckness, A. (2024). Locke&#8217;s Political Philosophy. I E. N. Zalta &amp; U. Nodelman (Red.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Sommer 2024 utg.). Stanford: Stanford University.</em></p><p><em>Lloyd, S. A., &amp; Sreedhar, S. (2022). Hobbes&#8217;s Moral and Political Philosophy. I E. N. Zalta &amp; U. Nodelman (Red.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (H&#248;st 2022 utg.). Stanford: Stanford University.</em></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[#6 Om kulturbegrepet]]></title><description><![CDATA[Sp&#248;rsm&#229;let om opprinnelse er dagligdags for mennesker med minoritetsbakgrunn i Norge og USA.Appiah, som har sine r&#248;tter i b&#229;de Storbritannia og Ghana, mener at sp&#248;rsm&#229;let &#171;Hvor kommer du fra ?&#187; egentlig betyr &#171;Hva er du?&#187;. Det er alts&#229; mindre et sp&#248;rsm&#229;l om personlig historie enn om identitet og type. (Torsen, 2021, s.329) I boken The lies that bind fra 2018 mener Appiah at vi vanligvis kategoriserer identitet etter fem kategorier, nemlig &#171;livssyn, nasjon, hudfarge, klasse og kultur&#187;. V&#229;r oppfatning av disse kategoriene er fortsatt basert p&#229; ideer fra 1800-tallet. Forfatteren inviterer oss til &#229; se n&#230;rmere p&#229; disse fundamentene for sosial identitet, den identiteten som gj&#248;r hvert enkelt menneske til tilh&#248;rende i en gruppe, i lys av nyere kunnskap. Sosiale identiteter definerer tilh&#248;righet og ekskludering, og en storstilt endring i m&#229;ten identitetsmark&#248;rer oppfattes p&#229;, har derfor innvirkning p&#229; folks liv. Identitet er ikke selvvalgt, den p&#229;virkes av tid og ideer. (Torsen, 2021, s.330)]]></description><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/om-kulturbegrepet</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/om-kulturbegrepet</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Galois]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Mon, 06 Jul 2026 15:44:00 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CBsd!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cb14c75-71a8-4d84-8f77-079fbd8a42b2_1280x853.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Om kulturbegrepet hos K.A. Appiah (ca. 1400 ord)</em></p><div><hr></div><p>Sp&#248;rsm&#229;let om opprinnelse er dagligdags for mennesker med minoritetsbakgrunn i Norge og USA.Appiah, som har sine r&#248;tter i b&#229;de Storbritannia og Ghana, mener at sp&#248;rsm&#229;let <em>&#171;Hvor kommer du fra ?&#187;</em> egentlig betyr <em>&#171;Hva er du?&#187;</em>. Det er alts&#229; mindre et sp&#248;rsm&#229;l om personlig historie enn om identitet og type. (Torsen, 2021, s.329) I boken <em>The lies that bind</em> fra 2018 mener Appiah at vi vanligvis kategoriserer identitet etter fem kategorier, nemlig <em>&#171;livssyn, nasjon, hudfarge, klasse og kultur&#187;</em>. V&#229;r oppfatning av disse kategoriene er fortsatt basert p&#229; ideer fra 1800-tallet. Forfatteren inviterer oss til &#229; se n&#230;rmere p&#229; disse fundamentene for sosial identitet, den identiteten som gj&#248;r hvert enkelt menneske til tilh&#248;rende i en gruppe, i lys av nyere kunnskap. Sosiale identiteter definerer tilh&#248;righet og ekskludering, og en storstilt endring i m&#229;ten identitetsmark&#248;rer oppfattes p&#229;, har derfor innvirkning p&#229; folks liv. Identitet er ikke selvvalgt, den p&#229;virkes av tid og ideer. (Torsen, 2021, s.330)</p><p>Vi p&#229;beroper oss jevnlig en vestlig kultur og et vestlig verdigrunnlag, og begrepet trenger &#229; avklares. Kulturbegrepet inneholder to komponenter: en <em>deskriptiv</em> og en <em>evaluerende</em> komponent. Kultur inneb&#230;rer nemlig <em>&#171;en beskrivelse av en kompleks helhet som inkluderer kunnskap, tro, kunst, moral, lover, skikker og vaner som vi f&#229;r gjennom &#229; v&#230;re medlem i et samfunn&#187;</em>. Men det er ogs&#229; <em>&#171;et ideal, som rommer de beste, mest verdifulle resultatene av en m&#229;te &#229; leve p&#229;&#187;</em>.</p><p>V&#229;rt begrep om vestlig kultur fremkaller <em>&#171;kunnskap, tro, skikk og bruk&#187;</em>, men inkluderer naturligvis ikke deres b&#248;yningsformer p&#229; alle steder og til alle tider siden den greske antikken. Kanskje sikter det til en felles, verdifull kjerne som g&#229;r i arv fra generasjon til generasjon. S&#229; kommer den andre betydningen i spill, <em>&#171;n&#229;r folk trekker fram de mest eksemplariske og fullkomne produktene fra ulike vestlige samfunn som uttrykk for vestlig kultur&#187;</em>. Denne eksemplariske kulturen er ikke hverdagens eller flertallets kultur. Appiah stiller sp&#248;rsm&#229;l ved gapet mellom den arven vi p&#229;beroper oss, og realiteten i v&#229;re skikker og vaner. (Torsen, 2021, s.331-332)</p><div><hr></div><p>Appiah presenterer Tylors og Arnolds syn p&#229; kulturbegrepet. Den f&#248;rste kan sies &#229; v&#230;re den moderne sosioantropologiens far. Han var begeistret for <em>&#171;studiet av fjerntliggende samfunn, oldtidssamfunn s&#229; vel som moderne&#187; </em>: virkeligheten og mangfoldet i deres kunnskap, tro, skikk og bruk. Arnold har et mye mer elitistisk syn p&#229; kultur. Kultur, siterer Appiah fra <em>Culture and anarchy</em>, er if&#248;lge Arnold <em>&#171;v&#229;r streben etter total perfeksjon ved &#229; bli kjent med det beste som har blitt tenkt og sagt i verden om alt som ang&#229;r oss mest&#187;</em>. Et <em>&#171;moralsk og estetisk ideal&#187;</em> som kommer til uttrykk i <em>&#171;kunst og litterature, musikk og filosofi&#187;</em>. (Appiah, 2018/2021, s.534-535)</p><p>To motstridende betydninger, alts&#229;. For Tylor, finnes det ingen mennesker uten kultur. For Arnold er <em>&#171;primitiv kultur&#187;</em> nonsens. Appiah tar sikte p&#229; &#229; klargj&#248;re de tylorianske og arnoldske ideene som gjennomsyrer v&#229;r oppfatning av vestlig kultur, grunnlaget for v&#229;r sosiale identitet.</p><p>Gandhi antydet at den vestlige sivilisasjonen ikke var noe annet enn en fiksjon, en &#248;nskelig fiksjon. For Appiah er det riktignok en fiksjon, men en lite attraktiv en : <em>&#171;en kilde til stor forvirring&#187;</em> og i verste fall et hinder mot &#229; takle politiske utfordringer vi st&#229;r overfor. (Appiah, 2018/2021, s.535-536)</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CBsd!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cb14c75-71a8-4d84-8f77-079fbd8a42b2_1280x853.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CBsd!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cb14c75-71a8-4d84-8f77-079fbd8a42b2_1280x853.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CBsd!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cb14c75-71a8-4d84-8f77-079fbd8a42b2_1280x853.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CBsd!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cb14c75-71a8-4d84-8f77-079fbd8a42b2_1280x853.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CBsd!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cb14c75-71a8-4d84-8f77-079fbd8a42b2_1280x853.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CBsd!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cb14c75-71a8-4d84-8f77-079fbd8a42b2_1280x853.jpeg" width="1280" height="853" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9cb14c75-71a8-4d84-8f77-079fbd8a42b2_1280x853.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:853,&quot;width&quot;:1280,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CBsd!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cb14c75-71a8-4d84-8f77-079fbd8a42b2_1280x853.jpeg&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" title="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CBsd!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cb14c75-71a8-4d84-8f77-079fbd8a42b2_1280x853.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CBsd!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cb14c75-71a8-4d84-8f77-079fbd8a42b2_1280x853.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CBsd!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cb14c75-71a8-4d84-8f77-079fbd8a42b2_1280x853.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CBsd!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cb14c75-71a8-4d84-8f77-079fbd8a42b2_1280x853.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Ideen om vestlig sivilisasjon eller kultur er for det f&#248;rste forvirrende fordi den blander sammen geografi og identitet. &#171;Vesten&#187; er geografisk og sosiologisk d&#229;rlig definert. I dag er Vesten et Nord-Atlanteren som skiller seg fra det ikke-vestlige Afrika, Asia og S&#248;r-Amerika, den s&#248;rlige verden. Men begrepet brukes ogs&#229; i kontrast til den islamske verden: Det fremhever et Europa som er en direkte etterkommer av <em>&#171;den kristne verden&#187;</em>.</p><p>Herodots geografi p&#229; 500-tallet f.Kr. omfatter tre kontinenter: Asia, Libya og resten av Europa. Men disse tre regionene tilsvarer ikke tre folkeslag, og Herodot undrer seg over at <em>&#171;jorden, som er en, har tre navn&#187;</em>. Selv om han var f&#248;dt i Lilleasia, definerte Herodot seg selv og ble av sin samtid sett p&#229; som greker. Substantivet <em>&#171;europeer&#187;</em> finnes ikke p&#229; den tiden: geografi definerer ikke sosial identitet.</p><p>Begrepet <em>&#171;Europeere&#187;</em> ble f&#248;rste gang brukt i 754 for &#229; beskrive seierherrene i slaget ved Tours mot muslimene i deres bemerkelsesverdige fremst&#248;t vestover fra 600-tallet og fremover: seier over restene av Romerriket i Bysants og over Perserriket, erobring av Den arabiske halv&#248;y mot visigoterne.</p><p>Korstogene fra 1000-tallet og utover markerte begynnelsen p&#229; den kristne gjenerobringen, med inntakelsen av Jerusalem i 1099. I l&#248;pet av de neste tre &#229;rhundrene utvidet Det osmanske riket sin makt over store deler av &#216;st-Europa : &#216;st-Europa og Lilleasia blir et lappeteppe av kristne og muslimske stater. Den kristne gjenerobringen av &#216;sten fortsatte f&#248;rst etter at den heilige keiserens styrker beseiret Ottomannerne ved Wien i 1529. F&#248;rst p&#229; 1800-tallet ble Hellas og Bulgaria tatt over.</p><p>Fra middelalderen og fremover har Europas kulturfolk gjort krav p&#229; arven fra det beste fra antikkens greske og latinske kultur. Som en gullklump ble l&#230;rdom overf&#248;rt fra antikkens Hellas til Roma, videre til renessansen ved de flamske og florentinske hoffene, til de store hovedstedene i Europa og, i nyere tid, til akademiene i Europa og USA. En veldig arnoldianske metafor. Denne metaforen er imidlertid h&#248;yst problematisk hvis det dreier seg om &#229; gj&#248;re gullklumpen til en vestlig sivilisasjons spesifikke kjerne, i kontrast til islam : For <em>&#171;den klassiske arven gullet representerer, var felles for kristen og muslimsk l&#230;rdom&#187;</em>. I 800-tallets Bagdad ble verkene til Platon, Aristoteles, Pythagora og Euklid oversatt til arabisk, og det var arabiske l&#230;rde som s&#248;rget for &#229; videref&#248;re et stort antall tekster som imidlertid gikk i glemsel i Europa i l&#248;pet av det Petraca kallte <em>&#171;Den m&#248;rke tidsalder&#187;</em>. Mye av denne antikke bibliografien er i dag bare kjent for oss takket v&#230;re gjenoppdagelsen av den i Vesten, som et resultat av arabiske forskeres l&#230;rde arbeid. Et eksempel er Aristoteles, hvis verker til dels f&#248;rst ble oversatt til latin p&#229; 1200-tallet, fra arabiske versjoner. Slik ble De Anima oversatt til latin fra arabisk for f&#248;rste gang ved hoffet til den hellige romerske keiseren Fredrik II, som nettopp hadde vendt hjem fra korstogene. Denne gullklumpen, denne <em>&#171;klassiske overleveringen&#187;</em> som <em>&#171;er ment &#229; skille vestlig sivilisasjon fra kalifets arvtagere&#187;</em> utgj&#248;r faktisk <em>&#171;et slektskapsb&#229;nd mellom dem&#187;</em>. P&#229; samme m&#229;te allierte Det osmanske riket seg med England p&#229; 1500-tallet, og i tre &#229;rhundrer med Frankrike, helt frem til Napoleonskrigene, da kristne og muslimske soldater kjempet side om side.</p><p>Metaforen om gullklumpen utgj&#248;r derfor en problematisk p&#229;stand om vestlig kulturs essens. Appiah beklager denne formen for essensialisme, som kommer til syne n&#229;r det hevdes at religioner er uforanderlige i kraft av hellige tekster, at nasjoner best&#229;r av skikker og spr&#229;k, eller at raser har en karakteristisk natur. Engelsk identitet er ikke basert p&#229; en uforanderlig essens, men p&#229; en legitim tilknytning til England gjennom samfunnets regler. Hver generasjon arver merkelappen &#8220;engelsk&#8221; fra den forrige, men innholdet endrer seg kontinuerlig. Det som kjennetegnet &#8220;engelskhet&#8221; p&#229; Chaucers tid for over 600 &#229;r siden er ikke det samme som karakteriserer engelsk identitet i dag.</p><p>Det er avsl&#248;rende at begrepet vestlig kultur kom s&#229; sent: I likhet med 1700-tallsfysikernes eter dekker det med en nebul&#248;s narrativ over en virkelighet som er langt mer nyansert enn eksistensen av en permanent kultur som i sin kjerne er <em>&#171;individualistisk, demokratisk, frihetsorientert, tolerant, progressiv, rasjonell og vitenskapelig&#187;</em>. Essensialisme skaper karikaturer som kan forvrenges. Det er mulig &#229; konstruere den motsatte karikaturen, n&#229;r en ikke-europeisk kultur skryter av sin <em>&#171;kollektivisme, samarbeidsevne og &#229;ndelig opplysning&#187;</em>, og bebreider den europeiske for sin <em>&#171;komplement&#230;re laster som galopperende materialisme, egoistisk individualisme og gr&#229;dig utnyttelse&#187;</em>.</p><p>If&#248;lge Appiah finnes det ingen forbrytelser mot kultureiendommer. I likhet med Arnold er han opptatt av &#229; videref&#248;re det beste fra sivilisasjonene, men dette er ikke sammenfallende med en rasemessig eller nasjonal essens. Former, skikker og stilarter forplanter seg fra et kontinent til et annet over tid, p&#229;virkningene er gjensidige. Da alle &#171;kulturelle praksiser og objekter er mobile&#187;, blir begrepet <em>&#171;kulturell approprasjon&#187; </em>irrelevant. Begrepet intellektuelle rettigheter har erobret verden, og tjener selskapene som kontrollerer dem og krever avgift p&#229; bruken av dem. Klager over intellektuell tilegnelse skjuler i realiteten andre former for utilb&#248;rlig oppf&#248;rsel eller forbrytelser: kommersiell utnyttelse, respektl&#248;shet eller vanhelligelse. De som reduserer disse forholdene til et sp&#248;rsm&#229;l om eiendom, st&#248;tter et kommersielt system som ikke beskytter tradisjoner som er fremmede for det.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Kilder</em></p><p><em>Torsen, I. (2021). Hvem er vi? Om identitet og kultur. I E. Skjervheim, G. Skirbekk, &amp; A. Gilje (Red.), Vite, v&#230;re, gj&#248;re: Exphil: l&#230;rebok med originaltekster (s.329-332). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.</em></p><p><em>Appiah, K. A. (2018/2021). Kultur. I L. Auestad (Overs.), fra </em>The Lies that Bind: Rethinking Identity. <em>I E. Skjervheim, G. Skirbekk, &amp; A. Gilje (Red.), Vite, v&#230;re, gj&#248;re: Exphil: l&#230;rebok med originaltekster (s. 534-555). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.</em></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[#5 Dyd og lykke]]></title><description><![CDATA[Den tiende boken i Den nikomakiske etikk dr&#248;fter nytelse, lykke og etikk. Vi skal beskrive forholdet mellom disse tre begrepene, for &#229; klargj&#248;re nettopp sammenhengen mellom det &#229; handle moralsk og det &#229; v&#230;re lykkelig. F&#248;rst m&#229; vi klargj&#248;re hva moralsk handling er for Aristoteles.]]></description><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/dyd-og-lykke</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/dyd-og-lykke</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Galois]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 05 Jul 2026 15:31:00 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!przs!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Vi tar for oss f&#248;lgende sp&#248;rsm&#229;l om dydsetikk:</em></p><p><em>I </em>Den nikomatiske etikk<em>, argumenterer Aristoteles for at det er en sammenheng mellom det &#229; handle moralsk og det &#229; v&#230;re lykkelig. Forklar hvordan disse henger sammen, if&#248;lge Aristoteles.</em></p><div><hr></div><p>Den tiende boken i <em>Den nikomakiske</em> etikk dr&#248;fter nytelse, lykke og etikk.</p><p>Vi skal beskrive forholdet mellom disse tre begrepene, for &#229; klargj&#248;re nettopp sammenhengen mellom det &#229; handle moralsk og det &#229; v&#230;re lykkelig. F&#248;rst m&#229; vi klargj&#248;re hva moralsk handling er for Aristoteles.</p><p>At dydsetikken er karakterfokusert, blir tydelig hvis vi gransker det aristoteliske kontinensbegrepet. Etiske dyder &#8211; karakterdyer &#8211; tilegnes i barndommen, hvor oppdragelse s&#248;rger for at gode vaner dannes, men de er ikke ferdig utviklet f&#248;r de suppleres med praktisk visdom, som er en av formene for intellektuell dyd. &#197; oppf&#248;re seg dydig krever faktisk en anstrengelse, synonymt med smerte mens den naturlige tilb&#248;yeligheten, fristelsen av d&#229;rlige ting, styres av nytelse. &#171;<em>[B&#229;de] kunnen og dyd</em>&#187;, sier nemlig Aristoteles, &#171;<em>ang&#229;r alltid det som er forbundet med vanskelighet.</em>&#187; F&#248;lelsen av glede og smerte b&#248;r reguleres s&#229; handlingen harmonerer med det gode &#8211; det dydige &#8211; menneskets. N&#229;r det gjelder dette dydsm&#248;nsteret, n&#229;r hun &#171;<em>har bestemt hva hun skal gj&#248;re, trenger hun ikke &#229; kjempe mot et indre press for &#229; handle annerledes [&#8230;] [Hun] blir ikke veldig fortvilet over &#229; m&#229;tte gi avkall p&#229; en nytelse som hun innser at hun burde gi avkall p&#229;.</em>&#187; Den kontinente derimot f&#248;ler denne indre spenningen, fordi den er underlagt f&#248;lelser &#8211; begj&#230;r etter nytelse eller sinne. Den holder disse f&#248;lelsene tilbake, takket v&#230;re sin vellykkede oppdragelse, og oppf&#248;rer seg som en dydig person, men er det ikke. (Kraut, 2022) Dette skillet viser tydelig at dyden ligger i personen, i karakteren, og ikke i handlingen, dens motivasjon eller dens konsekvenser.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!przs!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!przs!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!przs!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!przs!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!przs!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!przs!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg" width="960" height="465" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:465,&quot;width&quot;:960,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Et fargerikt og vidstrakt bilde av den sentrale regionen i Carina-t&#229;ken, tatt av NASA's Hubble-teleskop. Illustrasjon brukt i et essay om Aristoteles' dydsetikk og det guddommelige ved fornuften p&#229; exphilnerd for ExPhil-studenter.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Et fargerikt og vidstrakt bilde av den sentrale regionen i Carina-t&#229;ken, tatt av NASA's Hubble-teleskop. Illustrasjon brukt i et essay om Aristoteles' dydsetikk og det guddommelige ved fornuften p&#229; exphilnerd for ExPhil-studenter.&quot;,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Et fargerikt og vidstrakt bilde av den sentrale regionen i Carina-t&#229;ken, tatt av NASA's Hubble-teleskop. Illustrasjon brukt i et essay om Aristoteles' dydsetikk og det guddommelige ved fornuften p&#229; exphilnerd for ExPhil-studenter." title="Et fargerikt og vidstrakt bilde av den sentrale regionen i Carina-t&#229;ken, tatt av NASA's Hubble-teleskop. Illustrasjon brukt i et essay om Aristoteles' dydsetikk og det guddommelige ved fornuften p&#229; exphilnerd for ExPhil-studenter." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!przs!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!przs!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!przs!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!przs!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b2629ab-2f07-4548-a6b9-39f5350095cd_960x465.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">A 50-light-year-wide view of the central region of the Carina Nebula, from NASA&#8217;s Hubble Space Telescope</figcaption></figure></div><p>L&#230;ren om dyd som mellomtilstanden &#171;<em>systematiserer v&#229;r forst&#229;else av hvilke kvaliteter som er dyder</em>&#187;. Alle dydene Aristoteles nevner, preges nemlig av en mellomtilstand mellom ytterpunktene. Vi er da i stand til &#171;<em>&#229; identifisere andre middeltilstander som dyder, selv om de ikke er dyder som vi har et navn for</em>&#187;. Dydsetikken begrenser seg imidlertid til &#229; analysere dydenes natur: Den gir ingen prosedyre for handling, og if&#248;lge Aristoteles er ingen etikk i stand til &#229; gj&#248;re dette, fordi hva som er det rette &#229; gj&#248;re, avhenger av omstendighetene. (Kraut, 2022) Selv om det ikke finnes noen beslutningsregel, har det gode mennesket &#8211; det seri&#248;se mennesket, sier Aristoteles &#8211; et s&#230;regent klarsyn. Det &#171;<em>bed&#248;mmer hvert enkelt tilfelle riktig, og i hvert enkelt tilfelle fremtrer for ham det som er sant</em>&#187;, og et slikt skarpsyn overfl&#248;diggj&#248;r nettopp behovet for en regel : Det &#171;<em>utmerker seg [...] mest av alt ved at det ser hva som er sant i hvert enkelt tilfelle, akkurat som om det var en regel og en m&#229;lestokk</em>&#187; for vurderingen. (Aristoteles, 1113a 31-35) Denne umuligheten av en prosedyre for handling utelukker imidlertid ikke at det finnes kategoriske plikter og forbud: Noen lidenskaper eller handlinger kjenner ingen middelvei, og selve navnet avsl&#248;rer at de er ekstreme, overdrevne eller mangelfulle, for eksempel &#171;<em>ondskap, skaml&#248;shet, misunnelse og, n&#229;r det gjelder handlinger, utroskap, tyveri og drap</em>&#187;. (Aristoteles, 1107a 8-14)</p><p>Moralske handlinger er handlinger som ville blitt utf&#248;rt av et dydig menneske, hvis f&#248;lelser er blitt regulert av oppdragelse og vane. Vi skal se n&#229; n&#230;rmere hvordan Aristoteles definerer lykke, i forhold til dyd og nytelse.</p><p>Lykke er det vi &#171;<em>fastsetter som m&#229;let for menneskelivet</em>&#187;. Hos Aristoteles er det et klart sammenfall mellom lykke og dyd : &#171;<em>Lykkelig synes det liv &#229; v&#230;re som leves i overeenstemmelse med dyden</em>&#187;. (Aristoteles, 1999, s.276-277) Aristoteles sier ogs&#229; : Det finnes mange ting som &#171;<em>vi ville foretrekke [&#8230;] selv om det ikke fulgte nytelse med dem</em>&#187; : for eksempel &#171;<em>det &#229; se, vite eller &#229; besitte dydene</em>&#187;. Dyden etterstrebes for sin egen skyld, uavhengig av nytelse. (Aristoteles, 1999, s.201) Visse nytelser, de gode nytelsene, de som virkelig fortjener navnet nytelse, er likevel &#171;<em>blandet inn i lykke</em>&#187; : Det som fortjener navnet nytelse, er det gode menneskets nytelse: lykkelig og dydig. (Aristoteles, 1999, s.276-277)</p><p>Lykke er den virksomheten som er knyttet til dyd: Men siden den er det endelige m&#229;let for menneskelivet, m&#229; den v&#230;re knyttet til den mektigste av dydene, den som springer ut av det beste i oss, det vil si fra det guddommelige i oss. Det mektigste og guddommeligste i oss er fornuften, og det er derfor den virksomheten som er fornuftens prerogativ, den teoretiske betraktningen, som er lykken &#8211; og den tilh&#248;rende dyden, er fornuftens dyd, alts&#229; visdom. Et liv i samsvar med menneskelige dyder, for eksempel mot eller rettferdighet, er ogs&#229; lykkelig, men bare &#171;<em>p&#229; en sekund&#230;r m&#229;te</em>&#187;. Disse menneskelige dydene er fortsatt avhengige av kroppen og f&#248;lelsene, og krever spesielle ressurser eller omstendigheter: Mot krever styrke, gavmildhet penger. &#171;<em>Fornuftens dyd</em>&#187;, derimot, &#171;<em>er noe s&#230;rskilt</em>&#187; : Visdom kan ut&#248;ves uavhengig av ytre betingelser. Dessuten er &#171;<em>den som virker i overensstemmelse med fornuften [...] mest elsket av gudene</em>&#187;, og den vise, som gudene elsker mest, er &#171;<em>rimeligvis ogs&#229; den lykkeligste</em>&#187;. (Aristoteles, 1999, s.280-282) Og den virksomheten som &#171;<em>er i overensstemmelse med visdom</em>&#187; gir f&#248;lgelig &#171;<em>mest nytelse</em>&#187;. (Aristoteles, 1999, s.279)</p><p>Hos den vise sammenfaller lykke, dyd og nytelse &#8211; ja, han oppn&#229;r kvintessensen av hver av de tre. Det er oppdragelsen som f&#248;rer til &#229; finne nytelse i dydig handling, den handlingen som kroner lykke. For Aristoteles er n&#230;rmere sett nytelse og smerte verkt&#248;y i dydsoppdragelsen : F&#248;lelser m&#229; oppl&#230;res slik at man b&#229;de &#171;<em>gleder seg over</em>&#187; &#171;<em>det man b&#248;r</em>&#187; slik at nytelse og smerte har &#171;<em>avgj&#248;rende vekt for, og evne til, &#229; skape dyd og et lykkelig liv, ettersom folk beslutter seg for det som gir nytelse og unng&#229;r det som gir smerte</em>&#187;. Dyden etterstrebes for dens egen skyld og uavhengig av nytelsen som f&#248;lger av den, men den som er oppdratt til dyd, finner nytelse i dydig handling. Den som p&#229; fritiden opp&#248;ver seg til virksomheten som bringer frem det guddommelige i seg selv, oppn&#229;r den h&#248;yeste lykke.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Kilder</em></p><p>Aristoteles. (ca. 350 f.Kr./2021). <em>Den nikomakiske etikk</em>. I A. Stigen &amp; &#216;. Rabb&#229;s (Overs.), I E. Skjervheim, G. Skirbekk, &amp; A. Gilje (Red.), <em>Vite, v&#230;re, gj&#248;re: Exphil: l&#230;rebok med originaltekster </em>(s. 307-322). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.</p><p>Aristoteles. (ca. 350 f.Kr./1999). <em>Den nikomakiske etikk</em>. I &#216;. Rabb&#229;s &amp; A. Stigen (Overs.), <em>Den nikomakiske etikk</em>. Oslo: Bokklubben Dagens B&#248;ker, Bokklubbens Kulturbibliotek.</p><p>Kraut, R. (2022). Aristotle&#8217;s Ethics. I E. N. Zalta &amp; U. Nodelman (Red.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (H&#248;st 2022 utg.). Stanford: Stanford University.</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[#4 Hva kunnskap består av]]></title><description><![CDATA[Kunnskap er ikke begrenset til informasjon lagret i individets nevrale nettverk. For &#229; vite noe, er det ikke nok &#229; &#171;spekulere&#187; over det, eksempelvis om det finnes utenomjordisk liv. Du m&#229; ogs&#229; v&#230;re overbevist om det du tenker p&#229;. Kunnskapsformidling handler derfor ikke bare om &#229; spre informasjon, men ogs&#229; om &#229; skape konsensus om fakta. P&#229; lignende vis blir ofre for &#171;epistemisk urettferdighet&#187; &#8211; et begrep myntet av filosofen Miranda Fricker &#8211; som systematisk utsettes for tvil, for eksempel p&#229; grunn av fordommer, ber&#248;vet sin kunnskap s&#229; snart de tviler p&#229; det de tror. (Wikforss, 2021, s.83)]]></description><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/hva-kunnskap-bestar-av</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/hva-kunnskap-bestar-av</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Galois]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sat, 04 Jul 2026 15:35:00 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7peo!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd79ce57c-8c64-4963-a9fb-3e14960e00a6_800x591.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Et av de sentrale sp&#248;rsm&#229;lene i epistemologien eller erkjennelsesteorien er <em>&#171;Hva er det &#229; vite noe?&#187;</em></p><p>I denne teksten skal vi redegj&#248;re for Wikforss&#8217; synspunkt p&#229; hva kunnskap best&#229;r av. Vi vil vise at tre betingelser if&#248;lge Wikforss m&#229; oppfylles for at kunnskap skal eksistere. Det m&#229; foreligge en overbevisning, overbevisningen m&#229; v&#230;re sann, og den m&#229; v&#230;re basert p&#229; tilstrekkelig evidens. Vi vil s&#230;rlig belyse hva slags soliditet som kreves, if&#248;lge forfatteren, for at evidensen skal v&#230;re et godt nok grunnlag. Wikforss begynner med &#229; vektlegge skillet og samspillet mellom teoretisk kunnskap, som er boklig kunnskap, og praktisk kunnskap, som ligger n&#230;rmere begrepet om <em>&#171;ferdighet&#187;</em>. (Wikforss, 2021, s.81) N&#229;r vi skriver om kunnskap, mener vi, i likhet med forfatteren, f&#248;rst og fremst <em>&#171;teoretisk kunnskap&#187;</em>. (ca. 600 ord)</p><div><hr></div><p>Kunnskap er ikke begrenset til informasjon lagret i individets nevrale nettverk. For &#229; vite noe, er det ikke nok &#229; <em>&#171;spekulere&#187; </em>over det, eksempelvis om det finnes utenomjordisk liv. Du m&#229; ogs&#229; v&#230;re overbevist om det du tenker p&#229;. Kunnskapsformidling handler derfor ikke bare om &#229; spre informasjon, men ogs&#229; om &#229; skape konsensus om fakta. P&#229; lignende vis blir ofre for <em>&#171;epistemisk urettferdighet&#187;</em> &#8211; et begrep myntet av filosofen Miranda Fricker &#8211; som systematisk utsettes for tvil, for eksempel p&#229; grunn av fordommer, ber&#248;vet sin kunnskap s&#229; snart de tviler p&#229; det de tror. (Wikforss, 2021, s.83)</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7peo!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd79ce57c-8c64-4963-a9fb-3e14960e00a6_800x591.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7peo!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd79ce57c-8c64-4963-a9fb-3e14960e00a6_800x591.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7peo!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd79ce57c-8c64-4963-a9fb-3e14960e00a6_800x591.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7peo!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd79ce57c-8c64-4963-a9fb-3e14960e00a6_800x591.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7peo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd79ce57c-8c64-4963-a9fb-3e14960e00a6_800x591.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7peo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd79ce57c-8c64-4963-a9fb-3e14960e00a6_800x591.jpeg" width="800" height="591" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d79ce57c-8c64-4963-a9fb-3e14960e00a6_800x591.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:591,&quot;width&quot;:800,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Landskapsbilde av sanddyner og strand av Franck Scholten, brukt som illustrasjon til et essay om epistemologi og &#197;sa Wikforss redigert av exphilnerd for Exphil-studenter&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Landskapsbilde av sanddyner og strand av Franck Scholten, brukt som illustrasjon til et essay om epistemologi og &#197;sa Wikforss redigert av exphilnerd for Exphil-studenter&quot;,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Landskapsbilde av sanddyner og strand av Franck Scholten, brukt som illustrasjon til et essay om epistemologi og &#197;sa Wikforss redigert av exphilnerd for Exphil-studenter" title="Landskapsbilde av sanddyner og strand av Franck Scholten, brukt som illustrasjon til et essay om epistemologi og &#197;sa Wikforss redigert av exphilnerd for Exphil-studenter" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7peo!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd79ce57c-8c64-4963-a9fb-3e14960e00a6_800x591.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7peo!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd79ce57c-8c64-4963-a9fb-3e14960e00a6_800x591.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7peo!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd79ce57c-8c64-4963-a9fb-3e14960e00a6_800x591.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7peo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd79ce57c-8c64-4963-a9fb-3e14960e00a6_800x591.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Beach and dune, Franck Scholten</figcaption></figure></div><p>Men det er ikke nok &#229; tro for &#229; vite. Som Theaitetos forst&#229;r i Platons dialog med samme navn, kan vi bli lurt av v&#229;re ppfatninger, av v&#229;r d&#248;mmekraft. Derfor er kunnskap noe annet enn <em>&#171;visshet&#187;</em> i psykologisk forstand. <em>&#171;Jeg kan v&#230;re helt overbevisst om at jeg har rett, og likevel ikke ha kunnskap hvis det skulle vise seg at min overbevisning er falsk.&#187;</em> Trumps blindhet ved &#229; tro at solen skinte da han ble innviet illustrerer at <em>&#171;Kunnskap er ikke det samme som overbevisninger, uansett hvor sterke disse er.&#187;</em>. Betinget av sannhet, er kunnskap ikke personlig : Det er avhengig av hvordan verden er. (Wikforss, 2021, s.85-86)</p><p>Men som allerede Platon inns&#229;, er en sann overbevisning ikke nok til &#229; danne grunnlag for kunnskap. En overbevisning kan v&#230;re tilfeldig sann, men gjetteleken gj&#248;r det ikke mulig &#229; vite. Det som mangler, er alts&#229; evidens, som defineres som <em>&#171;et godt grunnlag for overbevisningene v&#229;re, et belegg.&#187;</em> En definisjon som gjelder b&#229;de vitenskapelig kunnskap og hverdagskunnskap, som i s&#229; m&#229;te ikke er fundamentalt forskjellige fra hverandre. (Wikforss, 2021, s.88) Hva slags evidens kreves for at det finnes kunnskap?</p><p>&#197; betvile alt p&#229; jakt etter et solid grunnlag, slik Descartes gjorde i <em>Meditationes de prima philosophia</em>, f&#248;rer til <em>&#171;skeptisk nedsmelting&#187;</em>. Den kartesianske rekonstruksjonen av trosbyggverket etter at vissheten om <em>Cogito ergo sum</em> er oppn&#229;dd, vinner ikke allmenn aksept. If&#248;lge filosofen G.E. Moore er det mer klokt &#229; tro at man har to hender enn skeptikernes argumenter. Wikforss er ogs&#229; en tilhenger av faillibilisme. <em>&#171;For &#229; ha kunnskap kreves det ingen absolutt sikkerhet, bare at grunnlaget gj&#248;r det tilstrekkelig sannsynlig at min (faktisk sanne) overbevisning er sann.&#187;</em> (Wikforss, 2021, s.91-92) Og hvis vi ikke er ansvarlige for v&#229;re overbevisninger, som er mentale tilstander, er det if&#248;lge forfatteren viktig at evidensen utfordres i tilstrekkelig grad, <em>&#171;at vi hele tiden inntar en kritisk holdning til det vi mener er et godt grunnlag.&#187;</em>. (Wikforss, 2021, s.95)</p><p><em>Konklusjon</em></p><p>Forfatteren viser at kunnskap krever en overbevisning, dens sannhet, alts&#229; dens overensstemmelse med verden, og tilstrekkelig evidens. Kunnskapens egenverdi kan diskuteres, men dens instrumentelle verdi er uomtvistelig. (Wikforss, 2021, 97-98) Den bygges opp gjennom tidene, via spr&#229;ket, slik at nye generasjoner med Isaac Newtons ord <em>&#171;kan st&#229; p&#229; kjempenes skuldre&#187;</em>.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Kilder</em></p><p>Wikforss, &#197;. (2021). Kunnskapsresistens. I Vite, v&#230;re, gj&#248;re: Introduksjon til erkjennelsesteori, metafysikk og etikk (s. 75-98). Oslo:Gyldendal.</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[#3 Evolusjonspsykologi]]></title><description><![CDATA[For &#229; gjenopprette tilliten til de psykologiske prinsippene som ligger til grunn for argumentasjonen hans som en siste utvei, peker forfatteren p&#229; deres selektive fordel i den naturlige evolusjonen: tendensen til optimisme finnes, siden den fremmer liv og reproduksjon. (Benatar, 2005/2021, s.420) Resonnementet f&#248;lger linjen til evolusjonspsykologien, som p&#229;st&#229;r at de kognitive programmene i menneskehjernen, som styrer atferden som respons p&#229; milj&#248;data, er tilpasninger; og at, som en f&#248;lge av dette, forst&#229;elsen av hjernens arkitektur gir en systematisk forst&#229;else av kulturelle og sosiale fenomener. (Downes, 2024)Flere innvendinger kan formuleres mot b&#229;de evolusjonspsykologi og Benatars argumentasjon.]]></description><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/evolusjonspsykologi</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/evolusjonspsykologi</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Galois]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Fri, 03 Jul 2026 15:38:00 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PJwk!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe79f5bb6-5b69-4431-b43d-6855a40afd5c_819x1024.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Benatar skriver i sitt essay Hvor ille er det &#229; bli til?</em></p><p>&#8220;De overnevente psykologiske fenomenene er ikke overraskende fra et evolusjonistisk perspektiv. De gj&#248;r oppror mot selvmord og er fordelaktig for reproduksjon. Hvis livene v&#229;re er fullt s&#229; ille som jeg fortsatt skal hevde at de har, og hvis folk var tilb&#248;yelige til &#229; se dette trekket ved livene sine for det det er, ville de v&#230;re langt mer tilb&#248;yelige til &#229; ta livet av seg, eller i det minste ikke lage flere slike liv. Pessimisme tenderer dermed ikke til &#229; bli naturlig selektert for.&#8221;<em> (Benatar, 2005/2021, s.420)</em></p><p><em>Vi tar for oss f&#248;lgende sp&#248;rsm&#229;l:</em></p><p><em>N&#229;r kan vi forklare psykologi gjennom naturlig seleksjon?</em></p><div><hr></div><p>For &#229; gjenopprette tilliten til de psykologiske prinsippene som ligger til grunn for argumentasjonen hans som en siste utvei, peker forfatteren p&#229; deres selektive fordel i den naturlige evolusjonen: tendensen til optimisme finnes, siden den fremmer liv og reproduksjon. (Benatar, 2005/2021, s.420) Resonnementet f&#248;lger linjen til evolusjonspsykologien, som p&#229;st&#229;r at de kognitive programmene i menneskehjernen, som styrer atferden som respons p&#229; milj&#248;data, er tilpasninger; og at, som en f&#248;lge av dette, forst&#229;elsen av hjernens arkitektur gir en systematisk forst&#229;else av kulturelle og sosiale fenomener. (Downes, 2024)Flere innvendinger kan formuleres mot b&#229;de evolusjonspsykologi og Benatars argumentasjon.</p><p>For det f&#248;rste kan et trekk v&#230;re fordelaktig for utf&#248;relsen av en funksjon uten &#229; v&#230;re resultatet av en tilpasning til akkurat denne funksjonen. Havskilpaddens framfinner er prim&#230;rt en tilpasning til fremdrift i vann, mens utformingen deres sekund&#230;rt er til fordel for hunnen n&#229;r hun graver reir. Omvendt kan en tilpasning som tidligere var fordelaktig, i dag v&#230;re utdatert &#8211; blindtarmen v&#229;r (Sober, 2000, s.85) - eller til og med skadelig: <em>&#8220;det menneskelige genomet har endret seg minimalt de siste 10 000 &#229;rene&#8221;</em> p&#229; tross av teknologi og kulturell utvikling, slik at &#8220;<em>hjernekretsene v&#229;re er fortsatt programmert til &#229; spise mer i perioder med matoverflod for &#229; forberede oss p&#229; perioder med sult&#8221;</em>, et <em>&#8220;evolusjon&#230;rt misforhold&#8221;</em> som kan forklare sukkeravhengighet og de tilh&#248;rende moderne pandemiene, for eksempel fedme. (Wiss, 2018, s.2-3)</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PJwk!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe79f5bb6-5b69-4431-b43d-6855a40afd5c_819x1024.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PJwk!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe79f5bb6-5b69-4431-b43d-6855a40afd5c_819x1024.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PJwk!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe79f5bb6-5b69-4431-b43d-6855a40afd5c_819x1024.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PJwk!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe79f5bb6-5b69-4431-b43d-6855a40afd5c_819x1024.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PJwk!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe79f5bb6-5b69-4431-b43d-6855a40afd5c_819x1024.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PJwk!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe79f5bb6-5b69-4431-b43d-6855a40afd5c_819x1024.png" width="819" height="1024" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/e79f5bb6-5b69-4431-b43d-6855a40afd5c_819x1024.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1024,&quot;width&quot;:819,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Orkanbilde i exphilnerds Exphil essay om evolusjonspsykologi&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Orkanbilde i exphilnerds Exphil essay om evolusjonspsykologi&quot;,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Orkanbilde i exphilnerds Exphil essay om evolusjonspsykologi" title="Orkanbilde i exphilnerds Exphil essay om evolusjonspsykologi" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PJwk!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe79f5bb6-5b69-4431-b43d-6855a40afd5c_819x1024.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PJwk!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe79f5bb6-5b69-4431-b43d-6855a40afd5c_819x1024.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PJwk!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe79f5bb6-5b69-4431-b43d-6855a40afd5c_819x1024.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PJwk!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe79f5bb6-5b69-4431-b43d-6855a40afd5c_819x1024.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Moonlight illuminates Cyclone Chido in the western Indian Ocean.</figcaption></figure></div><p>For &#248;vrig er ikke enhver tilpasning evolusjon&#230;r. Richard Dawkins nevner genenes instruering av en <em>&#8220;evne til &#229; l&#230;re&#8221;</em>, <em>&#8220;en m&#229;te for [den] &#229; l&#248;se problemer med &#229; forutsi noe i forutsigbare omgivelser p&#229;&#8221;</em>. (Dawkins, 2021, s.272)Hvordan avgj&#248;re om det er en adaptiv optimisme som bevarer fra ulykke, eller evnen for individet til &#229; l&#230;re <em>&#8216;i l&#248;pet av livet sitt&#8217;</em>, gjennom pr&#248;ving og feiling &#229; fjerne seg fra den?</p><p>Videre kan den samme funksjonen realiseres av flere design. Darwin blir sl&#229;tt i <em>&#171;sin unders&#248;kelse av orkideer&#187;</em> av <em>&#171;den endel&#248;se mangfoldigheten av strukturer &#8211; sl&#248;seriet av ressurser &#8211; for &#229; oppn&#229; det samme m&#229;let, nemlig befruktningen av en blomst ved pollen fra en annen plante.&#187;</em> (Darwin, 1862/1867, s. 284) &#197; gj&#248;re &#8216;reverse engineering&#8217; av designet (optimismen) ut fra funksjonen (hindre selvmord og oppfordre til reproduksjon) blir dermed kompromittert. Dette bekreftes av mangfoldet i livsriket, som har sofistikert inn i grener og undergrener en myriade av mulige realiseringer av <em>&#171;programmet&#187;</em> for genenes overlevelse. (Dawkins)</p><p>Man kan ogs&#229; hevde en s&#230;regenhet ved menneskets natur, som unndrar seg naturlig seleksjons diktat: <em>&#171;Snarere enn at menneskets natur er en samling av delte, faste og universelle psykologiske trekk&#187;</em>, kan menneskets natur ses som<em> &#171;hele klyngen av menneskelige trekk, inkludert all variasjon i alle v&#229;re trekk&#187;</em>. (Downes, 2024) Her mener samme Dawkins i <em>&#8216;Det egoistiske genet&#8217;</em> at han ikke skriver en <em>&#171;redegj&#248;relse for menneskers [...] atferd&#187;</em>. &#197; forst&#229; naturlig seleksjon f&#229;r en til &#229; anta at mennesker og alle levende vesener oppf&#248;rer seg egoistisk. <em>&#171;[&#8230;] hvis vi iakttar at menneskers atferd faktisk er altruistisk, st&#229;r vi overfor noe virkelig forvirrende.&#187;</em> (Dawkins, 2021, s. 256) Det er betvilelig at evolusjon forklarer psykologiens nyanser og variabilitet i tilstrekkelig grad og sp&#248;rsm&#229;let st&#229;r &#229;pent om hvorvidt kultur og samfunn har makten til &#229; sette sine krefter opp mot genenes blinde begj&#230;r.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lrPz!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc511a8e8-b46a-4777-9f45-b5866f527a65_1024x824.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lrPz!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc511a8e8-b46a-4777-9f45-b5866f527a65_1024x824.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lrPz!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc511a8e8-b46a-4777-9f45-b5866f527a65_1024x824.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lrPz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc511a8e8-b46a-4777-9f45-b5866f527a65_1024x824.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lrPz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc511a8e8-b46a-4777-9f45-b5866f527a65_1024x824.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lrPz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc511a8e8-b46a-4777-9f45-b5866f527a65_1024x824.jpeg" width="1024" height="824" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c511a8e8-b46a-4777-9f45-b5866f527a65_1024x824.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:824,&quot;width&quot;:1024,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Orkanbilde i exphilnerds Exphil essay om evolusjonspsykologi&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Orkanbilde i exphilnerds Exphil essay om evolusjonspsykologi&quot;,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Orkanbilde i exphilnerds Exphil essay om evolusjonspsykologi" title="Orkanbilde i exphilnerds Exphil essay om evolusjonspsykologi" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lrPz!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc511a8e8-b46a-4777-9f45-b5866f527a65_1024x824.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lrPz!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc511a8e8-b46a-4777-9f45-b5866f527a65_1024x824.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lrPz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc511a8e8-b46a-4777-9f45-b5866f527a65_1024x824.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lrPz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc511a8e8-b46a-4777-9f45-b5866f527a65_1024x824.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Tropical depression Eleven-E nearing landfall on Mexico</figcaption></figure></div><p>En premiss i evolusjonspsykologien er modularitet, ja til og med massiv modularitet av sinnet. Tre hovedargumenter fremf&#248;res. Det f&#248;rste argumentet er biologisk og utg&#229;r <em>&#171;fra en analogi som bygger p&#229; den sentrale overgangspremissen at sinn er en form for [komplekse] biologiske systemer som naturlig seleksjon virker p&#229;&#187;</em> - komplekse biologiske systemer er (massivt) modul&#230;re, p&#229; linje med organismen hvis organer <em>&#171;oppsto som et resultat av naturlig seleksjon&#187;</em>. Det andre argumentet dreier seg om beregningens natur: sinnet som en generell probleml&#248;sningsmekanisme tillater ingen annen utforming enn som en samling av spesifikke probleml&#248;sningsmekanismer. Det tredje argumentet fremhever <em>&#8216;stimuli-fattigdom&#8217;</em> - <em>&#8216;poverty of stimulus&#8217;</em> - (p&#229; en linje parallell med Chomsky) - knappheten p&#229; tid og informasjon kan ikke forklare barnets evne til &#229; l&#248;se problemene det m&#248;ter i verden. Mennesket kommer derfor til verden utstyrt med <em>&#171;et enormt sett av medf&#248;dte mekanismer som underst&#248;tter [...] probleml&#248;sningsevner.&#187;</em> (Downes, 2024)</p><p>Sinnet, innvender Buller i <em>&#8216;Adaptive Minds&#8217;</em> (Buller, 2005), er ikke en <em>&#171;generell sentral informasjonsbehandlingsmekanisme&#187;</em>. Det er med en form for essensialisme, nesten <em>&#8216;kreasjonisme&#8217;</em>, han anklager evolusjonspsykologene ettersom deres <em>&#171;tenkning gjenspeiler en &#8216;prosess-produkt-sammenblanding&#8217;. Hjerneplastisitet er en del av evolusjonsprosessen, men produktene av den plastiske hjernen er de spesialiserte hjernekretsene.&#187;</em> Det de <em>&#171;feilidentifiserer som moduler er faktisk ikke biologiske tilpasninger i det hele tatt. De kan ikke v&#230;re det fordi de er en plastisk hjernes respons p&#229; sitt milj&#248;.&#187;</em> (Silvers, 2007, s.798-800). Det finnes f&#248;lgelig ikke psykologiske universaler (Benatars bias) av evolusjon&#230;r opprinnelse som skulle v&#230;re noen slags <em>&#8216;isolerbare organer av sinnet&#8217;</em>.</p><p>Til syvende og sist kan man med Buller bemerke at <em>&#8220;evolusjonspsykologiens tilpasningssentrerte teori om menneskets natur&#8221;</em> er <em>&#171;i ingen sann forstand evolusjon&#230;r&#187;</em> (Buller, 2005, s.476): den fornekter at v&#229;r <em>&#171;art [er] et p&#229;g&#229;ende arbeid&#187;</em>, idet den ser p&#229; det menneskelige sinnet som et endelig sv&#230;rt komplekst produkt hvis modul&#230;re komponenter ble formet gjennom naturlig seleksjon (Silver, 2007, s.810). I forlengelsen kunne man nesten snakke om &#8216;anakronisme&#8217;. &#197; forst&#229; mennesket gjennom et psykologisk prisme er et sv&#230;rt nylig fenomen, s&#230;rlig i skalaen av evolusjonens hundrevis av millioner av &#229;r. S&#229;ledes visste <em>&#171;de gamle grekerne selvsagt at det er noe slikt som menneskets natur, og de reflekterte over de trekkene som skiller mennesket fra slike andre vesener som livl&#248;se gjenstander, dyr og guder. Men erkjennelsen av denne s&#230;regenheten [...] f&#248;rer ham ikke til &#229; sette opp mot universet som helhet - et virkelighetdomene som ikke kan reduseres til noe annet, og hvis selve eksistens plasserer det i utkanten, med mennesket og dets tanker som utgj&#248;r en fullstendig adskilt verden.&#187;</em> Det greske mennesket var heller ikke adskilt fra samfunnet: nedsenket i en kultur av <em>&#171;skam og &#230;re, i motsetning til de av skyld og plikt&#187;</em>, levde han gjennom sosial anerkjennelse. <em>&#171;[I]ndividet blir aldri sett som [...] en person i moderne forstand, med et unikt psykisk liv, en hemmelig subjektiv verden, den dype originaliteten til det vi ville kalle egoet. Det vi har er en essensielt sosial form av individet, karakterisert ved &#248;nsket om [...] &#229; tilegne seg i sine jevnaldrenes &#248;yne [...] slik ber&#248;mmelse at hans s&#230;regne eksistens blir hele bystatens, om ikke hele Hellas&#8217; felles eiendom&#187;</em> (Vernant, 1994, s.44-47). Det er nyttel&#248;st &#229; h&#229;pe &#229; bevise en modul&#230;r psyke hos individer uten ego - og &#229; rettferdiggj&#248;re evolusjonspsykologien ut fra det antikke Hellas&#8217; &#229;nd, som levde for bare noen &#229;rtusener siden.</p><p>Paradoksalt nok p&#229;beroper antinatalisten Benatar seg selve <em>&#171;den biologiske verdens dynamo&#187;</em> til forsvar for sitt argument, samtidig som han, <em>&#171;ved &#229; fremme &#248;nskeligheten av &#229; avslutte alt sansende liv, stiller seg opp mot den mest primordiale av alle drifter eller instinkter som kjennetegner livsfenomenet.&#187;</em> (Van Niekerk, 2022, s. 7&#8211;8)</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Kilder</em></p><p>Benatar, D. (2006/2021). Hvor ille er det &#229; bli til? I E. Skjervheim, G. Skirbekk, &amp; A. Gilje (Red.), <em>Vite, v&#230;re, gj&#248;re: Exphil: l&#230;rebok med originaltekster</em> (s. 424-430). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.</p><p>Dawkins, Richard. (2009/2021). Kapittel 11. Evolusjon: Er vi overlevelsesmaskiner skapt av genene v&#229;re? I E. Skjervheim, G. Skirbekk, &amp; A. Gilje (Red.), <em>Vite, v&#230;re, gj&#248;re: Exphil: l&#230;rebok med originaltekster</em> (s. 245&#8211;276). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.</p><p>Downes, Stephen M. (2024). Evolutionary psychology. I E. N. Zalta &amp; U. Nodelman (Red.), <em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</em> (Fall 2024 Edition). Hentet fra <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2024/entries/evolutionary-psychology/">https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2024/entries/evolutionary-psychology/.</a></p><p>Darwin, Charles. (1867). <em>On the various contrivances by which British and foreign orchids are fertilised by insects</em>. 2nd ed. London: John Murray. (Reprinted, with a new foreword, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984; original work published 1862.)</p><p>Silvers, Stuart. (2007). Adaptation, plasticity, and massive modularity in evolutionary psychology: An eassy on David Buller&#8217;s <em>Adapting Minds</em>. <em>Philosophical Psychology</em>, 20(6), 793&#8211;813. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09515080701692213">https://doi.org/10.1080/09515080701692213</a></p><p>Sober, Elliott. (2000). <em>Philosophy of Biology</em> (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.</p><p>Wiss, D. A., Avena, N., &amp; Rada, P. (2018). Sugar addiction: From evolution to revolution. <em>Frontiers in Psychiatry</em>, 9, 545. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00545">https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00545</a></p><p>Buller, D. J. (2005). <em>Adapting minds: Evolutionary psychology and the persistent quest for human nature</em>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</p><p>Vernant, Jean-Pierre. (1994). Greek man. <em>Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences</em>, 47(8), 44&#8211;50. <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/3824798">https://doi.org/10.2307/3824798</a></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[#2 Om livskvalitet og psykologi]]></title><description><![CDATA[Benatars sentrale p&#229;stand er todelt: For det f&#248;rste at menneskers liv inneholder langt mer lidelse enn vi erkjenner, og for det andre at vi systematisk overvurderer kvaliteten p&#229; v&#229;re liv p&#229; grunn av psykologiske forsvarsmekanismer. Hans hovedpoeng er ikke simpelthen at livet inneholder mer vondt enn godt, men at vi ikke klarer &#229; vurdere livskvalitet korrekt fordi v&#229;r persepsjon er systematisk forvrengt.]]></description><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/om-livskvalitet-og-psykologi</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/om-livskvalitet-og-psykologi</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Galois]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 02 Jul 2026 14:57:00 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pqew!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb499decb-f8a8-42ae-a3ca-0ded879496af_960x720.gif" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>David Benatar sier f&#248;lgende i teksten </em>&#171;Hvor ille er det &#229; bli til?&#187;<em>:</em></p><p><em>&#171;</em>Jeg har argumentert for at kvaliteten p&#229; folks liv er mye verre enn de tror, og jeg har vist hvordan en forst&#229;else av menneskelig psykologi kan forklare hvorfor folk tror at livene deres er bedre enn de virkelig er.<em>&#187; (s. 430)</em></p><p><em>Denne teksten presenterer og vurderer kritisk David Benatars argumentasjon for at menneskers liv er verre enn de tror, og at psykologiske mekanismer systematisk forvrenger v&#229;r vurdering av livskvalitet.</em> <em>(ca. 1500 ord)</em></p><div><hr></div><p>Benatars sentrale p&#229;stand er todelt: For det f&#248;rste at menneskers liv inneholder langt mer lidelse enn vi erkjenner, og for det andre at vi systematisk overvurderer kvaliteten p&#229; v&#229;re liv p&#229; grunn av psykologiske forsvarsmekanismer. Hans hovedpoeng er ikke simpelthen at livet inneholder mer vondt enn godt, men at vi ikke klarer &#229; vurdere livskvalitet korrekt fordi v&#229;r persepsjon er systematisk forvrengt.</p><p>Benatar bygger sin argumentasjon p&#229; en omfattende katalog over menneskelig lidelse. Han peker p&#229; at de fleste mennesker opplever en rekke former for ubehag: &#171;sult, t&#248;rst, trykket en kjenner n&#229;r tarmene og bl&#230;ren er sprengfulle, tretthet, stress, temperaturubehag&#187; samt mer alvorlige former som &#171;hodepine, frustrasjon, irritasjon, forkj&#248;lelse, menstruasjonssmerter&#187; og eksistensielle plager som &#171;kjedsomhet, tristhet, depresjon, ensomhet&#187;. (Benatar, 2021, s. 422) Viktigere enn mengden er imidlertid fordelingen: Benatar argumenterer for at &#171;en vurdering av hvor d&#229;rlig et liv er, m&#229; v&#230;re mer komplisert enn simpelthen &#229; trekke goder fra onder&#187;, fordi faktorer som rekkef&#248;lge, intensitet og livslengde p&#229;virker hvordan vi opplever godt og vondt. (Benatar, 2021, s. 416)</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pqew!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb499decb-f8a8-42ae-a3ca-0ded879496af_960x720.gif" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pqew!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_lossy/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb499decb-f8a8-42ae-a3ca-0ded879496af_960x720.gif 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pqew!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_lossy/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb499decb-f8a8-42ae-a3ca-0ded879496af_960x720.gif 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pqew!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_lossy/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb499decb-f8a8-42ae-a3ca-0ded879496af_960x720.gif 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pqew!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_lossy/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb499decb-f8a8-42ae-a3ca-0ded879496af_960x720.gif 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pqew!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_lossy/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb499decb-f8a8-42ae-a3ca-0ded879496af_960x720.gif" width="960" height="720" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/b499decb-f8a8-42ae-a3ca-0ded879496af_960x720.gif&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:720,&quot;width&quot;:960,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Orkanbilde i Exphil essay om David Benatars psykologi by Exphilnerd &quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Orkanbilde i Exphil essay om David Benatars psykologi by Exphilnerd &quot;,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Orkanbilde i Exphil essay om David Benatars psykologi by Exphilnerd " title="Orkanbilde i Exphil essay om David Benatars psykologi by Exphilnerd " srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pqew!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_lossy/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb499decb-f8a8-42ae-a3ca-0ded879496af_960x720.gif 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pqew!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_lossy/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb499decb-f8a8-42ae-a3ca-0ded879496af_960x720.gif 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pqew!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_lossy/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb499decb-f8a8-42ae-a3ca-0ded879496af_960x720.gif 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pqew!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_lossy/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb499decb-f8a8-42ae-a3ca-0ded879496af_960x720.gif 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Hurricane Lorenzo</figcaption></figure></div><p>Den andre delen av Benatars argument forklarer hvorfor mennesker ikke deler hans pessimistiske konklusjon. Han identifiserer tre hovedmekanismer som systematisk forvrenger v&#229;r vurdering av livskvalitet.</p><p>For det f&#248;rste peker han p&#229; <em>&#171;den velkjente Pollyanna-prinsippet&#187;</em>, som inneb&#230;rer at <em>&#171;det er en tendens til &#229; fokusere mer p&#229; positive sider av livet enn p&#229; negative&#187;</em>. (Benatar, 2021, s. 428) Denne optimismebiasen gj&#248;r at vi selektivt husker og vektlegger gode opplevelser, mens vi bagatelliserer eller glemmer d&#229;rlige.</p><p>For det andre diskuterer han tilpasning og vaneeffekter. <em>&#171;Vi tilpasser oss situasjonene v&#229;re&#187;</em>, forklarer Benatar, og <em>&#171;kan v&#230;re opptatt av at livene v&#229;re ikke kunne ha v&#230;rt verre, heller enn hvor mye bedre de kunne ha v&#230;rt&#187;</em>. (Benatar, 2021, s. 428) Denne mekanismen gj&#248;r at selv betydelig lidelse normaliseres og aksepteres som en del av livet.</p><p>For det tredje nevnerv&#229;r tendens til &#229; sammenligne oss med de som har det verre: <em>&#171;Vi teller oss heldige, for eksempel, at vi ikke har det s&#229; ille som de som har det verre enn oss&#187;</em>. (Benatar, 2021, s. 428) Denne nedadg&#229;ende sosiale sammenligningen gir en illusorisk f&#248;lelse av at v&#229;rt liv er godt.</p><div><hr></div><p>Likevel er Benatars argumentasjon for at det finnes en tendens til &#229; overvurdere sin egen lykke problematisk p&#229; flere m&#229;ter. Til &#229; begynne med lider den av visse dialektiske svakheter. Argumentasjonen skrider frem gjennom opplistingen, som underbygges av akademiske referanser, av flere kjente psykologiske fenomener. F&#248;rst Pollyanna-prinsippet eller tilb&#248;yeligheten til optimisme, deretter <em>&#171;tilpasning, tilvenning eller vannedannelse&#187;</em>, og til slutt <em>&#171;implisitt sammenligning med andres velv&#230;re&#187;</em>. Likevel er det andre fenomenet, tilpasning, en viktig forklaringsfaktor for det f&#248;rste. De to fenomenene sammenfaller derfor i stor grad, noe som reduserer beviset til to ledd. Videre innr&#248;mmer forfatteren kontingensen til fenomenene tilpasning og sammenligning: til syvende og sist er det bare Pollyanna-prinsippet som <em>&#171;gj&#248;r folk klart mer tilb&#248;yelige til overdrevent positive vurderinger&#187;</em>. Og siden tilpasning forklarer Pollyanna-prinsippet, m&#229; Benatar redde resonnementet sitt ved &#229; spekulere, denne gangen uten st&#248;tte fra akademiske referanser, at dette prinsippet ogs&#229; bekreftes, selv om med mindre styrke, n&#229;r fenomenene tilpasning og sammenligning blir omvendt (tilpasning til det positive og sammenligning med bedre liv). (Benatar, 2021, s.417-420)</p><p>Til slutt, for &#229; gjenopprette tilliten til de psykologiske prinsippene som ligger til grunn for argumentasjonen hans som en siste utvei, peker forfatteren p&#229; deres selektive fordel i den naturlige evolusjonen: tendensen til optimisme finnes, siden den fremmer liv og reproduksjon. Resonnementet f&#248;lger linjen til evolusjonspsykologien, som p&#229;st&#229;r at de kognitive programmene i menneskehjernen, som styrer atferden som respons p&#229; milj&#248;data, er tilpasninger; og at, som en f&#248;lge av dette, forst&#229;elsen av hjernens arkitektur gir en systematisk forst&#229;else av kulturelle og sosiale fenomener. (Downes, 2024)Flere innvendinger kan formuleres mot b&#229;de evolusjonspsykologi og Benatars argumentasjon.</p><p>For det f&#248;rste kan et trekk v&#230;re fordelaktig for utf&#248;relsen av en funksjon uten &#229; v&#230;re resultatet av en tilpasning til akkurat denne funksjonen. Havskilpaddens framfinner er prim&#230;rt en tilpasning til fremdrift i vann, mens utformingen deres sekund&#230;rt er til fordel for hunnen n&#229;r hun graver reir. Omvendt kan en tilpasning som tidligere var fordelaktig, i dag v&#230;re utdatert &#8211; blindtarmen v&#229;r (Sober) &#8211; eller til og med skadelig.</p><p>Videre kan den samme funksjonen realiseres av flere design. Darwin blir sl&#229;tt i <em>&#171;sin unders&#248;kelse av orkideer&#187;</em> av <em>&#171;den endel&#248;se mangfoldigheten av strukturer &#8211; sl&#248;seriet av ressurser &#8211; for &#229; oppn&#229; det samme m&#229;let, nemlig befruktningen av en blomst ved pollen fra en annen plante.&#187;</em> (Darwin, 1862/1867, s. 284) &#197; gj&#248;re &#8216;reverse engineering&#8217; av designet (optimismen) ut fra funksjonen (hindre selvmord og oppfordre til reproduksjon) blir dermed kompromittert. Dette bekreftes av mangfoldet i livsriket, som har sofistikert inn i grener og undergrener en myriade av mulige realiseringer av <em>&#171;programmet&#187;</em> for genenes overlevelse. (Dawkins)</p><p>Til slutt kan man ogs&#229; hevde en s&#230;regenhet ved menneskets natur, som unndrar seg naturlig seleksjons diktat: <em>&#171;Snarere enn at menneskets natur er en samling av delte, faste og universelle psykologiske trekk&#187;</em>, kan menneskets natur ses som<em> &#171;hele klyngen av menneskelige trekk, inkludert all variasjon i alle v&#229;re trekk&#187;</em>. (Downes, 2024) Her mener samme Dawkins i <em>&#8217;Det egoistiske genet&#8217;</em> at han ikke skriver en <em>&#171;redegj&#248;relse for menneskers [&#8230;] atferd&#187;</em>. &#197; forst&#229; naturlig seleksjon f&#229;r en til &#229; anta at mennesker og alle levende vesener oppf&#248;rer seg egoistisk. <em>&#171;[&#8230;] hvis vi iakttar at menneskers atferd faktisk er altruistisk, st&#229;r vi overfor noe virkelig forvirrende.&#187;</em> (Dawkins, 2021, s. 256) Det er betvilelig at evolusjon forklarer psykologiens nyanser og variabilitet i tilstrekkelig grad og sp&#248;rsm&#229;let st&#229;r &#229;pent om hvorvidt kultur og samfunn har makten til &#229; sette sine krefter opp mot genenes blinde begj&#230;r.</p><p>Paradoksalt nok p&#229;kaller antinatalisten Benatar selve <em>&#171;den biologiske verdens dynamo&#187;</em> til unnsetning, samtidig som han, <em>&#171;ved &#229; fremme &#248;nskeligheten av &#229; avslutte alt sansende liv, stiller seg opp mot den mest primordiale av alle drifter eller instinkter som kjennetegner livsfenomenet.&#187;</em> (Van Niekerk, 2022, s. 7&#8211;8) Med denne siste begrunnelsen gjennom evolusjon er det Benatars argumentasjonsbygning som kollapser.</p><p><em>[Som du har sett, har vi mye &#229; si om Benatars begrunnelse gjennom evolusjon, som faktisk er veldig kortfattet i teksten hans. Dette gjorde det mulig for oss &#229; knytte sammen med Dawkins&#8217; tekst. En essay kan fritt velge hva den &#248;nsker &#229; vektlegge; det er fordelaktig &#229; utforske punkter som kan v&#230;re gjenstand for rik diskusjon, for eksempel p&#229; grunn av forfatterens personlige affinitet til et emne eller litteraturens omfang. <a href="https://exphilned.substack.com/p/evolusjonspsykologi">Vi har skrevet et essay spesifikt om denne &#8216;forklaringen gjennom evolusjon&#8217; til Benatar: du vil der lese en fordypning av den foreg&#229;ende argumentasjonen sentrert rundt mulige innvendinger mot evolusjonspsykologien</a>.]</em></p><div><hr></div><p>Mennesket er utsatt for psykologiske skjevheter, hevder Benatar, som han selv er fritatt fra: hans kalkyler av lidelsen bekrefter ikke tegnene p&#229; en tendens til optimisme. Benatar ville da falle offer for en variant av de psykologiske forvrengningene &#8211; den overdrevne pessimismen &#8211; som b&#230;rer opp argumentet hans.</p><p>Hans psykologiske bilde virker forhastet. Fra en metodisk gjennomgang av kjente kognitive skjevheter trekker han en generell konklusjon om at vi misforst&#229;r hvor ulykkelige vi er. Men psykologi handler nettopp om subjektivitet: Selv om et <em>&#8216;allvitende&#8217; </em>ytre blikk skulle mene at en person undervurderer sitt eget ubehag, kan ikke vedkommende likevel oppleve seg som lykkelig? I s&#229; fall er det nettopp de psykologiske mekanismene som gj&#248;r at et objektivt vanskelig liv subjektivt leves som godt.</p><p>De psykologiske skjevhetene som p&#229;beropes er en form for selvbedrag. Ta tilb&#248;yeligheten til &#229; sammenligne seg med dem som har det d&#229;rligere enn en selv. En slik skjevhet kan bare forekomme hvis det ogs&#229; finnes de som har det bedre enn en selv, og hvis man vet at de eksisterer. (Hvis man ikke vet at det finnes de som har det bedre enn en selv, finnes ikke muligheten til &#229; sammenligne seg med dem - eller &#229; ignorere dem.) Et selvbedrag av denne sorten produserer to klassiske paradokser, der det f&#248;rste, eller det <em>&#171;statiske&#187;</em> paradokset, <em>&#171;gjelder selvbedragerens sinnstilstand&#187;</em>: hvordan kan man samtidig v&#230;re bevisst at det finnes mindre heldige enn seg selv og ignorere dette. Det andre - det s&#229;kalte dynamiske eller strategiske paradokset - gjelder prosessen eller dynamikken i selvbedraget: <em>&#171;hvordan kan en person ha til hensikt &#229; bedra seg selv uten &#229; gj&#248;re sine intensjoner virkningsl&#248;se?&#187;</em> To skoler fors&#248;ker &#229; mestre disse paradoksene: den ene krever et visst skisma, tidsmessig eller psykologisk, som isolerer to psykiske entiteter, der den ene bevisst bedrar den andre. Den andre mykner opp paradoksenes bokstavelige tolkning: noe <em>&#171;mellomliggende tro&#187; </em>eller noen <em>&#171;skiftende grader av godtroenhet gjennom prosessen&#187;</em> gj&#248;r selvbedrag plausibelt. (Deweese-Boyd, 2024) Behovet for &#229; ty til slike sofistikeringer viser i hvert fall at begrepet reiser problemer som Benatars tekst unnviker ved &#229; tie.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zWWz!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3e5cf54-b089-4ff4-98d6-0eaa162d873d_1000x1000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zWWz!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3e5cf54-b089-4ff4-98d6-0eaa162d873d_1000x1000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zWWz!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3e5cf54-b089-4ff4-98d6-0eaa162d873d_1000x1000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zWWz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3e5cf54-b089-4ff4-98d6-0eaa162d873d_1000x1000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zWWz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3e5cf54-b089-4ff4-98d6-0eaa162d873d_1000x1000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zWWz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3e5cf54-b089-4ff4-98d6-0eaa162d873d_1000x1000.jpeg" width="1000" height="1000" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d3e5cf54-b089-4ff4-98d6-0eaa162d873d_1000x1000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1000,&quot;width&quot;:1000,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Orkanbilde i Exphil essay om David Benatars filosofi &quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Orkanbilde i Exphil essay om David Benatars filosofi &quot;,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Orkanbilde i Exphil essay om David Benatars filosofi " title="Orkanbilde i Exphil essay om David Benatars filosofi " srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zWWz!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3e5cf54-b089-4ff4-98d6-0eaa162d873d_1000x1000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zWWz!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3e5cf54-b089-4ff4-98d6-0eaa162d873d_1000x1000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zWWz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3e5cf54-b089-4ff4-98d6-0eaa162d873d_1000x1000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zWWz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3e5cf54-b089-4ff4-98d6-0eaa162d873d_1000x1000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Arctic cyclone</figcaption></figure></div><p>Utilitaristen John Stuart Mill fremsetter et tydelig aritmetisk prinsipp: maksimering av lykke p&#229; menneskehetens skala, der <em>&#171;[m]ed lykke menes glede og frihet for smerte; med ulykke menes smerte og mangel p&#229; glede.&#187;</em> (Mill, <em>1861</em>/2021, s.399) Derimot er m&#229;lestokken for den utilitaristiske kalkylen som Benatar skisserer for &#229; fremme &#248;nskeligheten av &#229; avslutte alt sansende liv, ikke klar. Han nevner karakteren <em>&#8220;bra&#8221; </em>eller<em>&#8220;d&#229;rlig&#8221; </em>ved et liv fullt av <em>&#8220;positive&#8221;</em> eller<em>&#8220;negative erfaringer&#8221;</em>, en <em>&#8220;livskvalitet&#8221; </em>eller <em>&#8220;velv&#230;re&#8221;</em> som har en <em>&#8220;faktisk&#8221;</em> verdi, der de <em>&#8220;subjektive vurderingene&#8221;</em> ville v&#230;re lite p&#229;litelige. (Benatar, 2005/2021, s.417-418) Men en mindre passiv lykke synes antydet med <em>&#8220;et liv der man oppn&#229;r sine m&#229;l og tilfredstilles i &#248;kende grad&#8221;</em>. Han foreskriver for sin operasjon en vekting som er b&#229;de upresis og vilk&#229;rlig: det er ikke bare mengdene av lykke og ulykke som teller, men ogs&#229; deres <em>&#171;rekkef&#248;lge&#187;</em>, deres <em>&#171;intensitet&#187;</em> og varigheten av eksistensen som erfarer det - og p&#229;standen fremst&#229;r med et aksioms dristighet. En s&#230;regen <em>&#171;terskel av onder&#187;</em>, hvis h&#248;yde er ukjent, forbyr definitivt tilgangen til lykke for den som overskrider den. Benatar kunne, like vilk&#229;rlig, ha antatt den diametralt motsatte hypotesen, om en terskel av lykke som forbyr ulykke - og synes tilb&#248;yelig til en pessimisme som <em>&#8216;forvrenger&#8217;</em> en beregning som for &#248;vrig er d&#229;rlig definert.(Benatar, 2005/2021, s.415-416)</p><p>N&#229;r det gjelder<em> &#8216;livets mening&#8217;</em> er tolkningene tallrike. Sjelsorienterte synspunkter vil appellere til utsiktene til evig liv. For en subjektivist varierer meningen med livet fra person til person, den initieres i hver enkelts sinn, og realiseres med sin aktualisering vi kunne kalle &#171;selvrealisering&#187; - vanligvis gjennom &#229; n&#229; sine h&#248;ye m&#229;l, oppn&#229; det man &#248;nsker eller realisere det man mener er viktig. For objektivisme er de objektene som er verdige &#229; forf&#248;lge uavhengige av hvorvidt visse sinn anser dem som valgverdige: de er det universelt fordi de er iboende verdifulle. (Metz, 2023) Man aner at pessimisten Benatar fornekter muligheten for &#229; virkeliggj&#248;re et liv <em>&#8216;som har mening&#8217;</em> - uten at det for den sak skyld framkommer tydelig hva denne <em>&#8216;livet mening&#8217;</em> ville v&#230;re, hvis utilgjengelighet gj&#248;r livet og prokreasjon uutholdelig.</p><p>Benatar lever med sitt argument om asymmetrien mellom tilstedev&#230;relsen og frav&#230;ret av smerte og glede faktisk i en bin&#230;r verden som den minste mengde ondskap gj&#248;r ulevelig (Benatar, 2006): <em>&#171;[D]et onde ved &#229; eksistere (f.eks. smerter) er reelle ulemper i forhold til &#229; ikke eksistere, mens det gode ved &#229; eksistere (gleder) ikke er reelle fordeler i forhold til &#229; ikke eksistere, ettersom det i sistnevnte tilstand ikke finnes noen som kan bli fratatt dem.&#187;</em> F&#248;lger vi Benatar, ville den eneste levedyktige verden v&#230;re en verden fri for ondskap - som man kan pr&#248;ve &#229; tenke seg: et <em>&#171;hedonistisk paradis&#187;</em> uten <em>&#171;feilaktige handlinger&#187; </em>og dermed heller ingen <em>&#171;riktige eller gode handlinger&#187;</em>, uten motstand eller fare som man kan vise <em>&#171;dydene mot og utholdenhet&#187; </em>mot, <em>&#171;kj&#230;rlighet, gener&#248;sitet, [eller] m&#229;tehold&#187;</em> - en <em>&#171;&#8217;perfekt&#8217; (for Benatar &#8216;smertefri&#8217;) verden&#187;</em> som i sum <em>&#171;neppe ville kunne bidra til utviklingen av den menneskelige personlighetens moralske karaktertrekk&#187;</em>. (Van Niekerk, 2022, s.9-10)</p><p>Man kan kontrastere den utilitaristiske kalkylen til Benatar, hvis mangler vi har p&#229;pekt, med Mills moral - hans prinsipp om nyttemaksimering er den beste rettesnoren for utviklingen av samfunnet og menneskenaturen: han forfekter en i h&#248;yeste grad misunnelsesverdig verden, hvor <em>&#171;[et] utviklet sinn [...] finner uutt&#248;mmelige interessekilder i alt som omgir det: i naturen, i kunsten, i poesien, i historien, i menneskehetens liv n&#229; og tidligere og i dens fremtidsutsikter&#187;</em> (Mill, 2021, 404).</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Kilder</em></p><p>Benatar, D. (2006/2021). Hvor ille er det &#229; bli til? I E. Skjervheim, G. Skirbekk, &amp; A. Gilje (Red.), <em>Vite, v&#230;re, gj&#248;re: Exphil: l&#230;rebok med originaltekster</em> (s. 424-430). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.</p><p>Dawkins, Richard. (2009/2021). Kapittel 11. Evolusjon: Er vi overlevelsesmaskiner skapt av genene v&#229;re? I E. Skjervheim, G. Skirbekk, &amp; A. Gilje (Red.), <em>Vite, v&#230;re, gj&#248;re: Exphil: l&#230;rebok med originaltekster</em> (s. 245&#8211;276). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.</p><p>Mill, J. S. (1861/2021). Utilitarisme. I K. Dramer (Overs.), I E. Skjervheim, G. Skirbekk, &amp; A. Gilje (Red.),<em> Vite, v&#230;re, gj&#248;re: Exphil: l&#230;rebok med originaltekster </em>(s. 395-412). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.</p><p>Benatar, David. (2006). <em>Better never to have been: The harm of coming into existence</em>. New York: Oxford University Press.</p><p>Darwin, Charles. (1867). <em>On the various contrivances by which British and foreign orchids are fertilised by insects</em>. 2nd ed. London: John Murray. (Reprinted, with a new foreword, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984; original work published 1862.)</p><p>Downes, Stephen M. (2024). Evolutionary psychology. I E. N. Zalta &amp; U. Nodelman (Red.), <em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</em> (Fall 2024 Edition). Hentet fra <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2024/entries/evolutionary-psychology/">https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2024/entries/evolutionary-psychology/.</a></p><p>Metz, T. (2023). The Meaning of Life. I E. N. Zalta &amp; U. Nodelman (Red.), <em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</em> (Fall 2023 utg.). Hentet fra <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2023/entries/life-meaning/">https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2023/entries/life-meaning/</a></p><p>Roberts, M. A. (2024). The Nonidentity Problem. I E. N. Zalta &amp; U. Nodelman (Red.), <em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</em> (Fall 2024 utg.). Hentet fra <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2024/entries/nonidentity-problem/">https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2024/entries/nonidentity-problem/</a></p><p>Deweese-Boyd, Ian. (2024). Self-deception. In E. N. Zalta &amp; U. Nodelman (Eds.), <em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</em> (Fall 2024 Edition). Retrieved from <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2024/entries/self-deception/">https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2024/entries/self-deception/</a></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[#1 Richard Dawkins syn på evolusjon]]></title><description><![CDATA[Naturen favoriserer stabile former. &#171;Den tidligste form for naturlig seleksjon var ganske enkelt en seleksjon av stabile former og en forkasting av ustabile former.&#187; P&#229; et bestemt tidspunkt dukker det opp molekyler som er &#8220;i stand til &#229; skape kopier av seg selv&#187; fra ur-suppen &#8211; en ekstremt usannsynlig evne, som realiseres over hundrevis av millioner av &#229;r mens disse f&#248;rste abiotiske tidene stagnerer. Fremveksten av disse s&#229;kalte &#8216;replikatorene&#8217; markerer den plutselige ankomsten av en &#171;ny slags &#8216;stabilitet&#8217;&#187;, nemlig &#171;fortsetningen&#187; over flere generasjoner.]]></description><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/richard-dawkins-syn-pa-evolusjon</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/richard-dawkins-syn-pa-evolusjon</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Galois]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Wed, 01 Jul 2026 15:37:00 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yA1m!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4cde1d1d-11b7-4e5e-9eb3-61d15e808cc2_1232x2178.webp" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Darwins teori om evolusjon gjennom naturlig utvalg forklarer hvordan komplekse organismer kan oppst&#229; fra enklere former. Men hva var livets aller f&#248;rste begynnelse? Hvordan gikk verdenshavet fra en blanding av enkle kjemiske forbindelser til levende vesener? Dawkins&#8217; svar p&#229; dette sp&#248;rsm&#229;let introduserer begrepet &#8216;<em>replikatorer&#8217;</em> &#8211; molekyler som endret alt. &#197; forst&#229; hva replikatorer er og hvorfor de er viktige, er n&#248;kkelen til &#229; forst&#229; Dawkins&#8217; radikale gensentrerte syn p&#229; evolusjon.</p><p>Vi tar for oss f&#248;lgende sp&#248;rsm&#229;l fra pensum om Dawkins&#8217; tekst:</p><p><em>Hva er replikatorer, if&#248;lge Dawkins? Hva er Dawkins grunn til &#229; tro at de er s&#229; viktige?</em> <em>(ca. 700 ord</em>)</p><div><hr></div><p>Naturen favoriserer stabile former. <em>&#171;Den tidligste form for naturlig seleksjon var ganske enkelt en seleksjon av stabile former og en forkasting av ustabile former.&#187;</em> P&#229; et bestemt tidspunkt dukker det opp molekyler som er <em>&#8220;i stand til &#229; skape kopier av seg selv&#187;</em> fra ur-suppen &#8211; en ekstremt usannsynlig evne, som realiseres over hundrevis av millioner av &#229;r mens disse f&#248;rste abiotiske tidene stagnerer. Fremveksten av disse s&#229;kalte <em>&#8216;replikatorene&#8217;</em> markerer den plutselige ankomsten av en <em>&#171;ny slags &#8216;stabilitet&#8217;&#187;</em>, nemlig <em>&#171;fortsetningen&#187;</em> over flere generasjoner.</p><p>Det er ingen grunn til &#229; ty til &#171;planlegging, hensikt, og styring&#187; for &#229; forklare replikatorenes framvekst: tilfeldigheten medvirket til sammensetningen av en <em>&#171;kompleks kjede av forskjellige slags byggekloss-molekyler&#187;</em> som var i stand til &#229; replikere seg. Hvordan skjer denne primordiale replikasjonen? Hver byggekloss i kjeden <em>&#171;har en forkj&#230;rlighet for sitt eget slag&#187;</em>, og tiltrekker byggeklossene av samme slag som svever rundt i ursuppen: en lignende kjede formes som st&#248;ter opp til &#171;modellen&#187;. Dette er i alle fall en <em>&#171;forestilling&#187;</em> som Dawkins godtar. Varianter eksisterer: hver byggekloss tiltrekker ikke byggeklossene av samme slag, men av et s&#230;rskilt slag, som den har en forkj&#230;rlighet for. (Dawkins, 2021, s.258-260)</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yA1m!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4cde1d1d-11b7-4e5e-9eb3-61d15e808cc2_1232x2178.webp" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yA1m!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4cde1d1d-11b7-4e5e-9eb3-61d15e808cc2_1232x2178.webp 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yA1m!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4cde1d1d-11b7-4e5e-9eb3-61d15e808cc2_1232x2178.webp 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yA1m!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4cde1d1d-11b7-4e5e-9eb3-61d15e808cc2_1232x2178.webp 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yA1m!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4cde1d1d-11b7-4e5e-9eb3-61d15e808cc2_1232x2178.webp 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yA1m!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4cde1d1d-11b7-4e5e-9eb3-61d15e808cc2_1232x2178.webp" width="416" height="735.4285714285714" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/4cde1d1d-11b7-4e5e-9eb3-61d15e808cc2_1232x2178.webp&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:2178,&quot;width&quot;:1232,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:416,&quot;bytes&quot;:452318,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/webp&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://exphilned.substack.com/i/194710747?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4cde1d1d-11b7-4e5e-9eb3-61d15e808cc2_1232x2178.webp&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" title="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yA1m!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4cde1d1d-11b7-4e5e-9eb3-61d15e808cc2_1232x2178.webp 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yA1m!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4cde1d1d-11b7-4e5e-9eb3-61d15e808cc2_1232x2178.webp 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yA1m!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4cde1d1d-11b7-4e5e-9eb3-61d15e808cc2_1232x2178.webp 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yA1m!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4cde1d1d-11b7-4e5e-9eb3-61d15e808cc2_1232x2178.webp 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Dermed ble ursuppen <em>&#171;befolket av en stabil varietet molekyler; stabil enten ved at det enkelte molekyl varte lenge, ved at de kopierte seg raskt, eller at de kopierte seg n&#248;yaktig&#187;</em> (Dawkins, 2021, s. 260). <em>&#8216;Fitness&#8217;</em> til replikatorene er nettopp en funksjon av tre essensielle kvaliteter: langlevdhet, fruktbarhet og presisjon, som henholdsvis gir mer tid til replikasjon, kapasiteten til &#229; produsere flere kopier per tidsenhet, og kapasiteten til &#229; produsere mer n&#248;yaktige kopier.</p><p>For <em>&#171;kopieringsprosess [...] er ikke fullkommen&#187;</em>. Dette er en essensiell faktor: fordi kopieringen er utsatt for feil, befolkes ursuppen av replikatorer hvorav noen er mer stabile enn andre. Alle er i &#8216;konkurranse&#8217; om &#229; tiltrekke seg byggeklossene, hvis tilgjengelige mengder er begrensede, som svarer p&#229; deres affiniteter. Konkurranse er det <em>&#8220;neste viktige leddet i argumentasjonen, som Darwin selv understreket [...] Ursuppen var ikke i stand til &#229; fors&#248;rge et utall av replikatormolekyler [...] byggeklossene ble en sjelden og dyrebar ressurs. [...] Det forekom en kamp for tilv&#230;relsen blant de forskjellige replikatorvarietetene&#187; </em>(Dawkins, 2021, s. 262). I denne kampen overlevde de replikatorene som var best til &#229; beskytte seg selv. Noen<em> &#171;oppdaget&#187; </em>hvordan de skulle <em>&#171;bygge en fysisk vegg av proteiner rundt seg&#187;</em> og dermed lage <em>&#171;overlevelsesmaskiner som de kunne bo i&#187;</em> (Dawkins, 2021, s. 263).</p><p>Dette bringer oss til Dawkins&#8217; mest dramatiske p&#229;stand: Disse overlevelsesmaskinene er oss. <em>&#171;De d&#248;de ikke ut, for de ga opp den nonchalante friheten for lenge siden. N&#229; svermer de i store kolonier, i sikkerhet inne i kjempemessige skramlende roboter, avskjermet mot verden utenfor som de kommuniserer med gjennom snirklete omveier ved hjelp av fjernkontroll. De er i deg og de er i meg; de skapte oss med b&#229;de legeme og sjel. Og bevaringen av dem er den ytterste grunnen for v&#229;r eksistens. De har kommet langt, disse replikatorene. N&#229; har de f&#229;tt navnet gener, og vi er deres overlevelsesmaskiner&#187;</em> (Dawkins, 2021, s. 263).</p><p>Dette er kjernen i Dawkins&#8217; argument: vi eksisterer fordi vi er maskiner bygget av gener for &#229; beskytte og kopiere disse genene. Replikatorer er viktige fordi de forklarer den ultimate &#229;rsaken til at vi er til. Alt ved oss &#8211; v&#229;re kropper, v&#229;re instinkter, v&#229;re f&#248;lelser &#8211; eksisterer i bunn og grunn fordi det hjalp noen replikatorer i fortiden til &#229; lage flere kopier av seg selv. Dette er en radikal omvending av hvordan vi vanligvis tenker p&#229; oss selv. Vi liker &#229; tenke at genene er v&#229;re, men Dawkins p&#229;st&#229;r at det egentlig er vi som er deres.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Kilder</em></p><p>Dawkins, R. (2021). Det egoistiske genet. I E. Skjervheim, G. Skirbekk, &amp; A. Gilje (Red.), <em>Vite, v&#230;re, gj&#248;re: Exphil: l&#230;rebok med originaltekster</em> (s. 254-276). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Being and nothingness]]></title><description><![CDATA[Speech-to-text works quite well. The machine has now mastered the skill. It is also an efficient exercise for humans learning languages like a machine, the auditory counterpart to reading like a machine and massive exposure to written textual data. At first glance, another candidate for fulfilling this purpose would be the massive exposure to audio data annotated with live subtitles or a static transcript that one can follow along as the speech unfolds. That&#8217;d be a good start, but we claim that speech-to-text, which when performed by a human agent is better known, redolent of school benches, as dictation, is superior to it. For, that&#8217;s the crux of our philosophy, we&#8217;re best trained by way of massive exposure to the very task that we wish to become proficient in. Reading like a machine trains reading comprehension above all. (In the wake of such an exercise, the other language abilities, speaking, listening, writing, will of course develop, but the primary goal is to build that of going through text-to-meaning like a machine.) Assuming that making sense of a text coincides with making sense of it in English (or your familiar language of predilection), our statistical parser is best trained in text-to-meaning by way of massive exposure to whole stretches of literature in the original paralleled with their English translation. Turning now to the listening competency, what matters in first instance is parsing the mess. Our first reaction to hearing Norwegian was that it sounds melodic and funny. That&#8217;s it. That we could not make any sense (in English or the language of reason) out of a live stream was an effect of our first not being able to parse speech into Norwegian itself. Reciprocally, once being able to transcribe, sense would appear magically from our reading skills grown separately through crossing through newspapers and training our text-to-meaning engine full throttle. In short, the missing bridge that paves the way to speech-to-sense is an ability to parse into Norwegian, which, symmetrically to what reading like a machine prescribes, is best exercised by massively exposing ourselves to the very effort we want to become skilled in, Norwegian dictation. It&#8217;s one of the most painstaking exercises, and, in our experience, one of the most powerful. Perhaps a few sessions without cheating and with plenty of sweat are enough for light to brighten up the house.]]></description><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/being-and-nothingness</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/being-and-nothingness</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Galois]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Tue, 30 Jun 2026 18:35:17 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hJ_A!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F604254d0-dcd5-42f4-afa7-d4b75d00f08c_4080x3060.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>This essay is a reworking, in June 2026, of an essay originally written in January 2024. Technology, particularly speech-to-text, has advanced drastically in the interim, and we have incorporated our observations on its latest capabilities into the text. The philosophy and exercise remain unchanged: it&#8217;s the human that we put to work here, the machine has enough apostles and reviewers. </em></p><div><hr></div><p>Speech-to-text works quite well. The machine has now mastered the skill. It is also an efficient exercise for humans <em>learning languages like a machine</em>, the auditory counterpart to <em>reading like a machine</em> and massive exposure to written textual data. At first glance, another candidate for fulfilling this purpose would be the massive exposure to audio data annotated with live subtitles or a static transcript that one can follow along as the speech unfolds. That&#8217;d be a good start, but we claim that speech-to-text, which when performed by a human agent is better known, reminiscent of school benches, as <em>dictation</em>, is superior to it. For, <a href="https://learnfinnishlikeamachine.substack.com/p/the-length-of-time">we&#8217;re best trained by way of massive exposure, that&#8217;s the crux of our philosophy, to the very task that we wish to become proficient in</a>. <em>Reading like a machine </em>trains reading comprehension above all. (In the wake of such an exercise, the other language abilities, speaking, listening, writing, will of course develop, but the primary goal is to build that of going through <em>text-to-meaning</em> like a machine.) Assuming that making sense of a text coincides with making sense of it <em>in English</em> (or our familiar language of predilection), our statistical parser is best trained in <em>text-to-meaning</em> by way of massive exposure to whole stretches of literature in the original paralleled with their English translation. Turning now to listening competency, what matters in first instance is parsing the mess. Our first reaction to hearing Norwegian was that it sounds melodic and funny. That&#8217;s it. That we could not make any sense (in English or the language of reason) out of a live stream was an effect of our first not being able to parse speech <em>into Norwegian</em> itself. Reciprocally, once being able to transcribe, sense would appear magically from the reading skills we had grown separately <a href="https://learnfinnishlikeamachine.substack.com/p/13-enlightenment">through crossing through newspapers</a> and training our <em>text-to-meaning</em> engine full throttle. In short, the missing bridge that paves the way to <em>speech-to-sense</em> is an ability to parse into Norwegian, which, symmetrically to what <em>reading like a machine</em> prescribes, is best exercised by massively exposing ourselves to the very effort we want to become skilled in, <em>Norwegian dictation</em>. It&#8217;s one of the most painstaking exercises, and, in our experience, one of the most powerful. Perhaps a few sessions without cheating and with plenty of sweat are enough for light to brighten up the house. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hJ_A!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F604254d0-dcd5-42f4-afa7-d4b75d00f08c_4080x3060.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hJ_A!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F604254d0-dcd5-42f4-afa7-d4b75d00f08c_4080x3060.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hJ_A!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F604254d0-dcd5-42f4-afa7-d4b75d00f08c_4080x3060.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hJ_A!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F604254d0-dcd5-42f4-afa7-d4b75d00f08c_4080x3060.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hJ_A!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F604254d0-dcd5-42f4-afa7-d4b75d00f08c_4080x3060.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hJ_A!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F604254d0-dcd5-42f4-afa7-d4b75d00f08c_4080x3060.jpeg" width="1456" height="1092" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/604254d0-dcd5-42f4-afa7-d4b75d00f08c_4080x3060.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1092,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:2482989,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/i/200570135?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F604254d0-dcd5-42f4-afa7-d4b75d00f08c_4080x3060.jpeg&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hJ_A!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F604254d0-dcd5-42f4-afa7-d4b75d00f08c_4080x3060.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hJ_A!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F604254d0-dcd5-42f4-afa7-d4b75d00f08c_4080x3060.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hJ_A!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F604254d0-dcd5-42f4-afa7-d4b75d00f08c_4080x3060.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hJ_A!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F604254d0-dcd5-42f4-afa7-d4b75d00f08c_4080x3060.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Troms&#248;, Norway</figcaption></figure></div><p>The excellent radio program <em>Verdib&#248;rsen</em>, on the national radio station <em>NRK</em>, is an ideal companion for learning Norwegian <em>like a machine</em>, and it&#8217;s likely that around our peak <em>training</em> and <em>fine-tuning</em> period, we listened to most of the episodes. In what follows, philosopher Kaja Melsom is asked about her favorite philosopher. (NRK, 2024)</p><div class="native-audio-embed" data-component-name="AudioPlaceholder" data-attrs="{&quot;label&quot;:null,&quot;mediaUploadId&quot;:&quot;08f33b06-9e2a-4289-bacb-645a40a398ef&quot;,&quot;duration&quot;:101.85143,&quot;downloadable&quot;:false,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true}"></div><p>While understanding answers vague questions, which can be tackled at several levels of depth, such as what is it about, who is the interviewee's favorite philosopher, and why, transcribing is unequivocal: what is the exact and complete sequence of words that, when uttered, results in this audio production. The novice we were was allowed to proceed piece by piece. Here is an illustration of our struggles at the time we first went through the exercise and drafted the present account. </p><div class="native-audio-embed" data-component-name="AudioPlaceholder" data-attrs="{&quot;label&quot;:null,&quot;mediaUploadId&quot;:&quot;4acb59f8-3249-46c5-a5c7-a044833572fb&quot;,&quot;duration&quot;:7.810612,&quot;downloadable&quot;:false,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true}"></div><p>Play<em> &#8230; Jean-Paul Sartre &#8230; fordi han har en helt spesiell rolle i livet mitt den dag i dag &#8230;</em></p><p>Replay <em>&#8230; Da har jeg valgt Jean-Paul Sartre, fordi han har en helt spesiell rolle i livet mitt den dag i dag &#8230; </em></p><p><em>(I have chosen Jean-Paul Sartre, because he has a completely special role in my life to this day&#8230;)</em></p><div class="native-audio-embed" data-component-name="AudioPlaceholder" data-attrs="{&quot;label&quot;:null,&quot;mediaUploadId&quot;:&quot;0e7c543f-0a82-42d3-97c8-4d6f672612ca&quot;,&quot;duration&quot;:21.812244,&quot;downloadable&quot;:false,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true}"></div><p>Play<em> &#8230; Jeg oppdaget ham &#8230; uten &#229; kunne &#8230; ord fransk &#8230; s&#229; p&#229; meg som en oppe-&#8230; menneske fordi jeg ikke mestret spr&#229;ket &#8230;</em></p><p>(It becomes clear on a longer thread that the beginning and the end are most salient, or at least transcribed first. In fact, two behaviors can account for the same phenomenon, as the student&#8217;s individual tactics sneak in: either listening to the whole and then transcribing, in which case, there&#8217;s a good chance that the beginning and the end will be remembered better than the weaker middle, or transcribing while listening, that is, writing while listening until the reciter gets ahead of you, and picking up again later, when you&#8217;ve finished jotting things down.)</p><p>Replay <em>&#8230; Jeg oppdaget ham som 16-17 &#229;ring da jeg befant meg &#8230; i Frankrike &#8230; uten &#229; kunne &#8230; ord fransk &#8230; folk ikke lenger s&#229; p&#229; meg som en oppe-&#8230; menneske fordi jeg ikke mestret spr&#229;ket &#8230;</em> </p><p>Once more <em>&#8230; Jeg oppdaget ham som 16-17 &#229;ring da jeg &#8230; befant meg &#8230; i Frankrike &#8230; uten &#229; kunne &#8230; ord fransk &#8230; jeg plutselig &#8230; jeg skj&#248;nte at folk ikke lenger s&#229; p&#229; meg som en oppe-&#8230; menneske fordi jeg ikke mestret spr&#229;ket &#8230; </em></p><p>And anew <em>&#8230; Jeg oppdaget ham som 16-17 &#229;ring da jeg plutselig befant meg p&#229; videreg&#229;ende skole i Frankrike uten &#229; kunne et &#8230; ord fransk &#8230; Da var jeg i en slags identitetskrise fordi jeg plutselig &#8230; jeg skj&#248;nte at folk ikke lenger s&#229; p&#229; meg som en oppe-&#8230; menneske fordi jeg ikke mestret spr&#229;ket &#8230;</em></p><p>As rehearsals progress, the exercise transforms: the rush of jotting down notes on a blank page gives way to the precision play of filling in the remaining gaps. And perhaps some holes will resist indefinitely, no matter how finely we cut, no matter how many times we push replay. </p><p>&#8230; <em>et &#8230; ord fransk &#8230; </em></p><p><em>&#8230; en oppe-&#8230; menneske &#8230;</em></p><p>There&#8217;s a Swiss Army knife sleight, which we promise to disclose in a minute, for opening even the stiffest boxes, but now that we clearly fathom the modalities of the procedure, let&#8217;s try to get a little perspective and briefly reflect on what&#8217;s at stake here.</p><div><hr></div><p>What&#8217;s at stake is dictation. Let&#8217;s try to sneak into the pupil&#8217;s mind. They know the instructions, to reproduce word for word, with the exact spelling. It isn&#8217;t necessary,<em> a priori</em>, for them to understand, and yet. With the whole heart attentive: </p><p><em>&#8230; Jeg oppdaget ham &#8230; uten &#229; kunne &#8230; ord fransk &#8230;</em></p><p><em>&#8230; fransk! French, something with French word (ord) &#8230; uten &#229; kunne &#8230; without being able to &#8230; a French word &#8230; without being able to understand (or speak) a single French word? &#8230; </em></p><p>Replay <em>&#8230; Jeg oppdaget ham &#8230;  p&#229; videreg&#229;ende skole i A uten &#229; kunne &#8230; ord fransk &#8230;</em></p><p>The missing bit represented by the dummy letter<em> A</em> has got a sound shape. </p><p><em>&#8230; /&#712;fra&#331;kri&#720;k&#601;/ &#8230; </em></p><p>But its harmonious fit in the clause is also semantic. That is where meaning comes to interweave with sound and draw the ear into one field or another of the lexical pasture.</p><p><em>&#8230; not being able to understand a word of French &#8230; while at highschool &#8230; in France! &#8230; France is Frankrike &#8230;  /&#712;fra&#331;kri&#720;k&#601;/ &#8230; Frankrike! &#8230;</em></p><p>It&#8217;s really hard to further increase the granularity and know in which order the strands are interwoven to bring out parsing and spelling. It just clicks. Let&#8217;s give it another try. Say we have grasped the following, where <em>B</em> is still missing. </p><p><em>&#8230; jeg plutselig befant meg p&#229; B skole i Frankrike uten &#229; kunne &#8230;</em></p><p><em>&#8230; /&#712;vi&#720;d&#601;r&#601;&#716;&#609;o&#720;&#601;n&#601;/ &#8230; /&#712;vi&#720;d&#601;r&#601;/ &#8230; videre! &#8230; p&#229; videre-&#8230; skole &#8230; &#609;o&#720;&#601;n&#601; &#8230; g&#229;-&#8230; skole &#8230; highschool &#8230; </em>videreg&#229;ende<em> skole! </em></p><p>(Of course, this is not to say that speech recognition works through erudite phonetic transcription in the international standard. IPA transcription is just a symbol here, in the rendering the stream of consciousness, for the flash of sound recognition. We ourselves are unfortunately poorly trained in phonetics, and will try to remedy this shortcoming in the future for the sake of sole theoretical completeness. Indeed, in practice, extensive exposure and a keen ear are sufficient, in accordance with the principles of <em>learning like a machine</em>, to acquire the ability to speak and understand what is being said, <a href="https://learnfinnishlikeamachine.substack.com/p/4-stochastic-weather">just as, asymptotically, learning to read does not stringently require grammar</a>.)</p><p>In short, each position in the script is doubly constrained, by both sound and meaning in context (it&#8217;s in fact, beyond meaning, further submitted to syntax, too, to contextual linguistics at large, which meaning, in the simplistic dual model outlined above, is at most a working synecdoche for). Dictation fits into various stages of the learning process, but because of this multifold constraint, its effectiveness is perhaps greatest when the fundamentals of reading are already in place, <a href="https://learnfinnishlikeamachine.substack.com/p/7-extravagant-banquets">after what we refer to elsewhere as the </a><em><a href="https://learnfinnishlikeamachine.substack.com/p/7-extravagant-banquets">training</a></em><a href="https://learnfinnishlikeamachine.substack.com/p/7-extravagant-banquets"> phase, which a more voluminous phase of</a><em><a href="https://learnfinnishlikeamachine.substack.com/p/7-extravagant-banquets"> fine-tuning </a></em><a href="https://learnfinnishlikeamachine.substack.com/p/7-extravagant-banquets">follows</a>. Can the complete novice who has only sound to go by find their way? Arguably, yes, by virtue of the law of large numbers, the effectiveness of which we constantly confirm. Said novice must then painstakingly immerse themselves in the sound sphere of the language, listen to volumes of <em>Verdib&#248;rsen</em> episodes, and, even before beginning to parallel read, before understanding anything, learn to parse the spoken language. Learning to distinguish words. That is to say, their boundaries. Word boundaries and <em>mincing</em>. </p><p><em>Do you mean turning on the </em>radio-cassette <em>player and learning while you sleep? </em>Pretty much. It seems that&#8217;s how, through boundary statistics, the sound waves of language enter the mind. Let&#8217;s strip language, for a moment, of its semantic properties. The language thread goes on, but it becomes strictly musical, precisely because we are newcomers, or, to place the reasoning on the speculative plane to which it belongs, because the lexicon, syntax, and grammar, albeit their forms and the distribution of their patterns unchanged, have been depleted of their meaning, of their logic. What, then, is a word? As a first approximation, a string of letters in writing, of sounds in speech, separated from the next by a blank space, respectively on the page or in time. What if, now, exacerbating the synthetic character of the experiment, these blank spaces (and the potential punctuation marks that intersperse both text and prosody) were to vanish, and the flow to become the uninterrupted stitching together of these meaningless words? </p><p><em>&#8230; jegplutseligbefantmegp&#229;videreg&#229;endeskoleiFrankrikeuten&#229;kunne &#8230;</em></p><p>What distinguishes one word from the next, then, is its internal cohesive force. Just as within a molecule, whose atoms are more strongly bound to one another than to those of the rest of the universe, the syllables of the word are so tightly bound together that they give it an interior, boundaries. It is the relativity of forces that makes the molecule stick out: it&#8217;s only because covalent bonds are infinitely stronger than hydrogen bonds or Van der Waals forces that this distinct entity called a molecule exists. Similarly, the word springs forth because the immaterial, statistical counterpart of these mechanical forces is infinitely more powerful within it than with the rest of the syllable space. That analogue, it&#8217;s the transition probability between syllables. The transition <em>jeg-plut </em>is much less likely than <em>plut-se-(lig).</em> <em>Plutselig</em> forms a whole, unlike *<em>jegplut</em>, because in a never-ending stream of speech, the frequency of the former is infinitely higher than that of the latter. So, that&#8217;s how, in a nutshell, our novice could get <em>speech-to-its-fine-slicing-into-words</em> while they sleep. That&#8217;s what the fascinating experiments by Saffran et al. show. (Saffran, 1997) The subjects are to draw for twenty minutes while background sound plays. What they are exposed to incidentally, without their attention being called to dwell on it, is the unbroken, rhythmless flow of a synthetic language consisting of six nonsense words. </p><p><em>&#8230; bupadapatubitutibudutabapidab &#8230; </em></p><p>At the end, they are tested on the words they heard, and even though they were completely absorbed in their drawings, they have learned. Later, Saffran repeats the experiment with sound sequences to confirm that the same statistical learning ability applies to pure music. (Saffran, 1999) Our <em>tabula rasa </em>therefore has a good chance of learning to chop before any literacy.  </p><p>But they<em> </em>stumble upon yet another problem: with their head full of probability, having never seen a text, they&#8217;re unable to <em>spell</em> a single word they&#8217;ve heard. They&#8217;re stuck with the mental equivalent of a chopped phonetic transcription, where words have been individualized, but are still solely sounding. </p><p><em>&#8230; [da  j&#230;&#618;  &#712;pl&#649;ts&#601;l&#618;  b&#601;&#712;f&#593;nt  me&#618;  po&#720;  &#712;vi&#720;d&#601;r&#601;&#716;&#609;o&#720;&#601;n&#601;  &#712;sku&#720;l&#601;  i&#720;  &#712;fra&#331;kri&#720;k&#601;  &#712;&#649;&#720;t&#601;n  o&#720;  &#712;k&#649;n&#601;] &#8230;</em></p><p><em>(&#8230; da jeg plutselig befant meg p&#229; videreg&#229;ende skole i Frankrike uten &#229; kunne &#8230;)</em></p><p>Along such a trajectory, where listening precedes reading, the missing functionality in achieving speech-to-text transcription is <em>finely-sliced-speech-to-spelling</em>. Arguably, that skill can be trained with subtitled or transcribed live audio. (In passing, live exposure to the written script can also be expected to come to intermingle with boundary statistics to train the parsing engine in isolating words within the sound mess.) With all that, they&#8217;d be able to master a na&#239;ve, nescient version of the dictation, in a way, where <em>speech-to-text</em> happens perforce by the sheer mechanics of statistical habituation, without meaning or syntax intervening at all. What is being said would remain as cryptic as a conversation among adults to a household pet. If you watch something live, such as movies, that combines sound, subtitles, and a <em>story</em> in technicolor, context, in the form of a scene and happenings, might be regarded as playing the role of a <em>thread of meaning</em>, which the parallel English thread comes to fulfill in <em>reading like a machine</em>. If you are able to <em>volume-watch-TV</em> like a machine without falling asleep or losing the tautness of your attention needed to properly carry out the exercise, that&#8217;s a track to follow. It could perhaps bring you closer to managing a learned version of speech-to-text where meaning meddles, and, with that, closer to listening skills, but still fall short, we argue, of the trajectory that originates in <em>reading like a machine</em> and branches at some point into <em>speech-to-text</em>. By first brooding over a mega-corpus that comprises <em>everything</em> (transcripts of speech included), the latter fosters depth and breadth, multiplicity of registers and genres, immersion in the fluency of <em>virtuosi</em> in the Letters. Very importantly, it promotes slow and laborious attention, the painstaking efforts that are conducive to growth, patient frequenting of linguistics tools, repetition until perfection of the main exercise in piecewise <em>matching</em> and the free spawning, keeping you sharp and alert, of a myriad of its variants. We highlight patience and slowness here. In<em> reading like a machine</em> time is on our side, we&#8217;ve our hand on it. We play, we replay, we pause. We manage to get through <em>volumes</em> because we are no longer bound by the passing of time, the unit and the dimension of our presence have changed, we count in <em>lines tamed</em>. The same asynchronicity between the thread of speech and that of meaning appears in <em>dictation</em> practiced as we are doing here. The TV movie, with its frivolity, its strictly oral tone, and above all, its fountaining, with no respite, subtitles that vanish after a subliminal moment, seems quite pale in comparison.</p><p>When coming to dictation our way, we&#8217;re already trained in syllable transition statistics via massive exposure to the <em>written</em> language. Chopping the live stream is all the easier given that we already know what the molecules look like, if not their rigorous phonetics, at least their envelope, their allure. All in all, we already have a full-fledged statistics engine ready to expect what comes next, and, when we replay, what fits in the holes. We have the semantic, syntactic and grammatical constraints that weigh on wild guessing. We have word spelling. All that remains is training our ear to discern words within that fancy stream, <em>speech-to-spelling</em>, indeed, yet in a highly supervised manner. </p><div><hr></div><p>Our Swiss Army knife from earlier is ready to use, which solves most of the puzzles in hole-based listening exercises. </p><p><em>&#8230; et &#8230; ord fransk &#8230;</em></p><p><em>&#8230; en oppe-&#8230; menneske &#8230;</em></p><p>When we type our text in full into a good online translator, we get in return:</p><p><em>&#8230; I discovered him when I was 16 or 17, when I suddenly found myself in high school in France without knowing a &#8230; <strong>single</strong> word of French. At the time, I was going through a sort of identity crisis because I suddenly &#8230; realized that people no longer saw me as a <strong>capable</strong> &#8230; human being because I hadn&#8217;t mastered the language &#8230;</em></p><p>In short, the machine intelligence filled the holes (still hinted at with <em>&#8230;</em>) with what is most likely.</p><p><em>&#8230; a single word of French &#8230; </em></p><p><em>&#8230; a full-fledged human being &#8230;</em></p><p>Let&#8217;s flip the direction, the English text shifts to the left, and on the right appears:</p><p><em>&#8230; Jeg oppdaget ham da jeg var 16 eller 17 &#229;r, da jeg plutselig befant meg p&#229; videreg&#229;ende skole i Frankrike uten &#229; kunne et &#8230; <strong>eneste</strong> ord fransk &#8230; P&#229; den tiden gikk jeg gjennom en slags identitetskrise fordi jeg plutselig &#8230; inns&#229; at folk ikke lenger s&#229; p&#229; meg som et <strong>dyktig</strong> &#8230; menneske fordi jeg ikke hadde l&#230;rt meg spr&#229;ket &#8230;</em></p><p>Unfortunately, <em>eneste</em> does not fit the sound stream: we clearly heard a consonant first, something along the lines of <em>*kr&#248;ve</em>, <em>*kl&#248;va, *tl&#248;yva</em>. How it sounds precisely is far from clear, and that it doesn&#8217;t sound like <em>eneste</em> is obvious. The same applies to <em>dyktig</em>, in the hole that opens with <em>oppe-</em>. No matter, let&#8217;s reverse again and make use of good translators&#8217; ability to come up with synonyms.</p><p>&#8230; <em>without being able <strong>to understand</strong> a &#8230; word of French &#8230;</em></p><p>Actually, an infinitive fits well in the first hole as well. </p><p><em>&#8230; realized that people no longer saw me as an <strong>alert</strong> &#8230; human being because I hadn&#8217;t mastered the language &#8230;</em></p><p>Back and forth, we play and replay synonyms until it converges to the thing we are very likely to have heard. Well, our case is really tricky and we&#8217;re doomed to fail. It seems the script is </p><p>&#8230; <em>uten &#229; kunne et <strong>kl&#248;yva</strong> ord fransk &#8230; </em></p><p>where the adjective comes from Norwegian Nynorsk (the other official Norwegian language, which is well represented in the media) and seeps to Norwegian Bokm&#229;l only in the fixed idiom in question, <em>not a single word</em>. Nynorsk <em>kl&#248;yva</em> is a verb meaning <em>to split</em>, <em>to slice</em>. We can feel a potential semantic drift: not being able to split a single segment of French into words, not being able of <em>*a split-word of French</em>. </p><p>As far as <em>oppeg&#229;ende</em> (<em>alert</em>, one who gets up in the morning), it sits in a corner of the dictionary and our translator didn&#8217;t reach that far. No luck fishing. 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stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Troms&#248;, Norway</figcaption></figure></div><p>So our speaker is in France and discovers Jean-Paul Sartre while flipping through the syllabus.</p><div class="native-audio-embed" data-component-name="AudioPlaceholder" data-attrs="{&quot;label&quot;:null,&quot;mediaUploadId&quot;:&quot;fb965f5e-150b-4e2b-83d9-0ad5509bf7d2&quot;,&quot;duration&quot;:28.029388,&quot;downloadable&quot;:false,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true}"></div><p><em>&#8230; Han skrev om &#8230; hvordan friheten gir oss angst fordi vi ikke er verken v&#229;r fortid eller v&#229;re fremtidige muligheter. Vi er dette intet &#8230; midt i mellom, og det var akkurat der jeg f&#248;lte meg. Jeg var hverken den Kaja jeg var i Norge f&#248;r jeg kom til Frankrike, og jeg kunne heller ikke &#8230; p&#229; at jeg sikkert en dag ville mestre fransk &#229; bli et oppeg&#229;ende menneske igjen. </em></p><p><em>(&#8230; He wrote about &#8230; how freedom fills us with anxiety because we are neither our past nor our future possibilities. We are this nothingness &#8230; right in the middle, and that was exactly how I felt. I was neither the Kaja I had been in Norway before I came to France, nor could I rely on the fact that I would surely one day master French and become a fully alert person again.)</em></p><p>Here it is anew, <em>oppeg&#229;ende</em>, a little more audible, and, indeed, less surprising. Laws of discourse and semantic cohesion come to corroborate the hypotheses. Maybe we have a puzzling hole in </p><p>&#8230; <em>og jeg kunne heller ikke &#8230; p&#229; at jeg sikkert en dag ville mestre fransk &#8230;</em></p><p>Yet, we do hear something that resembles <em>*laneme</em>, <em>*lanema </em>(in our own internal phonetic alphabet)<em>.</em> In the syntactic backbone, a verb in the infinitive fits best. Now the Swiss Army Knife opens the box.</p><p>&#8230; <em>nor could I <strong>rely on</strong> the fact that I would surely one day master French &#8230;</em></p><p>Reversing, the Norwegian reads</p><p><em>&#8230; og jeg kunne heller ikke<strong> lene meg</strong> p&#229; tanken om at jeg en dag sikkert ville mestre fransk &#8230;</em></p><p>That&#8217;s our best guess, <em>lene meg. </em>Swiss Army knife, linguistic ties, conjectures, and probabilities. Here, we fine-tune our ear the hard way to matching the musical flow to its spelling, powered by a statistical engine already attuned to the language&#8217;s dance.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>References</em></p><p>NRK. (2024, 7. januar). Filosofen som ble utstoppet: H&#248;r om Jeremy Bentham og andre favorittfilosofer! <em>Verdib&#248;rsen</em>. <a href="https://radio.nrk.no/podkast/verdiboersen/sesong/siste/l_50868da8-abc2-485b-868d-a8abc2985b2d">https://radio.nrk.no/podkast/verdiboersen/sesong/siste/l_50868da8-abc2-485b-868d-a8abc2985b2d</a></p><p>Saffran, J. R., Newport, E. L., Aslin, R. N., Tunick, R. A., &amp; Barrueco, S. (1997). Incidental language learning: Listening (and learning) out of the corner of your ear. <em>Psychological Science</em>, <em>8</em>(2), 101&#8211;105. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00690.x">https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00690.x</a></p><p>Saffran, J. R., Johnson, E. K., Aslin, R. N., &amp; Newport, E. L. (1999). Statistical learning of tone sequences by human infants and adults. <em>Cognition</em>, <em>70</em>(1), 27&#8211;52. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(98)00075-4">https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(98)00075-4</a></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Fustel de Coulanges in the Far North]]></title><description><![CDATA[In The Ancient City (La cit&#233; antique), published in 1864, Fustel de Coulanges argues that ancient Greek and Roman societies were fundamentally influenced by their religious beliefs, in particular the cult of ancestors and household gods, and that the evolution of these religious practices explains the formation, revolutions and decline of their social and political institutions.]]></description><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/fustel-de-coulanges-in-the-far-north</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/fustel-de-coulanges-in-the-far-north</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Galois]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 04 Jun 2026 18:50:00 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QSVO!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcf2f1a8-9752-48ee-9c30-c17a6ebe7a84_1280x857.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>The following is a (slightly revised) republishing of an older essay written in younger days, October 2023.</em></p><div><hr></div><p>In<em> The Ancient City</em> (<em>La cit&#233; antique</em>), published in 1864, <a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numa_Denis_Fustel_de_Coulanges">Fustel de Coulanges</a> argues that ancient Greek and Roman societies were fundamentally influenced by their religious beliefs, in particular the cult of ancestors and household gods, and that the evolution of these religious practices explains the formation, revolutions and decline of their social and political institutions.  </p><p>The author opens with an account of the most ancient beliefs.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>D&#8217;apr&#232;s les plus vieilles croyances des Italiens et des Grecs, ce n&#8217;&#233;tait pas dans un monde &#233;tranger &#224; celui-ci que l&#8217;&#226;me allait passer sa seconde existence ; elle restait tout pr&#232;s des hommes et continuait &#224; vivre sous la terre. </em>(de Coulanges, 1864)</p><p>A web translator is quick to translate into English. </p><p><em>According to the oldest beliefs of the Italians and Greeks, it was not in a world alien to this one that the soul would spend its second existence; it remained very close to men and continued to live beneath the earth.</em></p><p>We convert the same into Norwegian Bokm&#229;l.</p><p><em>If&#248;lge de eldste troene til italienere og grekere, var det ikke i en fremmed verden at sjelen skulle tilbringe sitt andre liv; den forble sv&#230;rt n&#230;r mennesker og fortsatte &#229; leve under jorden.</em></p><p>We&#8217;ll repeatedly do so in the following, as we aim at training our reading in Norwegian. Machine translation will open the door to a few didactic experiments. </p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>We&#8217;ll indeed leverage a consequential feature offered by good online translators, namely the opportunity to query, at each position in the sentence, alternative translations from that position onward. For instance, from the original translation above</p><p><em>If&#248;lge de eldste </em>troene <em>til italienere og grekere&#8230;</em></p><p>a click on <em>troene</em> proposes other options for the word at that position (of which the first is <em>forestillingene</em>) and reconstructs the remainder of the sentence accordingly (in our case, the substitution doesn&#8217;t call for any change down the line):</p><p><em>If&#248;lge de eldste </em>forestillingene<em> til italienere og grekere&#8230;</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0d66!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7088688f-a17b-46cb-8a0a-ae82579fb845_480x300.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" 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src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0d66!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7088688f-a17b-46cb-8a0a-ae82579fb845_480x300.png" width="480" height="300" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0d66!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7088688f-a17b-46cb-8a0a-ae82579fb845_480x300.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0d66!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7088688f-a17b-46cb-8a0a-ae82579fb845_480x300.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0d66!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7088688f-a17b-46cb-8a0a-ae82579fb845_480x300.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0d66!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7088688f-a17b-46cb-8a0a-ae82579fb845_480x300.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Smart web translator suggesting alternative translations, starting from any position in the sentence. </figcaption></figure></div><p>(Our intent is not to pit one web translator against the others, particularly since the capabilities of each are ever evolving: what&#8217;s important is their featuring, in one form or another, the option we are interested in.)</p><p>Let&#8217;s investigate a few alternatives. We highlight the variations in <strong>bold</strong>. </p><p><em>&#8594; If&#248;lge de eldste <strong>forestillingene</strong> til italienerne og grekerne var det ikke i en <strong>annen</strong> verden <strong>enn denne </strong>at sjelen <strong>tilbrakte sin</strong> andre <strong>eksistens</strong>; den <strong>holdt seg</strong> sv&#230;rt n&#230;r menneskene og <strong>levde videre</strong> under jorden.</em> </p><p><em>&#8594; If&#248;lge <strong>italienernes og grekernes</strong> eldste <strong>oppfatninger</strong> var det ikke i en annen verden enn denne at sjelen<strong> skulle tilbringe</strong> sin andre <strong>tilv&#230;relse</strong>; den forble<strong> tett p&#229;</strong> menneskene og <strong>bodde fortsatt </strong>under jorden.</em></p><p>Tirelessly, we go back to the original text (English or French), marshal our abilities to the fullest, and try on a blank page to recover the Norwegian translation. Perhaps we feed the Norwegian attempt into the translator and see if it restores the original meaning. We play around with alternative translations, translate back and forth, then try hard on a blank page again. </p><p>As we&#8217;ll illustrate in the following, such manipulations of variants provide the perfect opportunity for a few didactic digressions, for forays into vocabulary and grammar. In a section on <em>Revolutions</em>, Fustel de Coulanges studies the concomitance and reciprocal influence of the decline in religious beliefs and major social changes. </p><p><em>Ce qui est certain, c&#8217;est que, d&#232;s le septi&#232;me si&#232;cle avant notre &#232;re, cette organisation sociale &#233;tait discut&#233;e et attaqu&#233;e presque partout. [&#8230;] Les causes qui l&#8217;ont fait p&#233;rir peuvent se r&#233;duire &#224; deux. L&#8217;une est le changement qui s&#8217;est op&#233;r&#233; &#224; la longue dans les id&#233;es par suite du d&#233;veloppement naturel de l&#8217;esprit humain, et qui, en effa&#231;ant les antiques croyances, a fait crouler en m&#234;me temps l&#8217;&#233;difice social que ces croyances avaient &#233;lev&#233; et pouvaient seules soutenir. L&#8217;autre est l&#8217;existence d&#8217;une classe d&#8217;hommes qui se trouvait plac&#233;e en dehors de cette organisation de la cit&#233;, qui en souffrait, qui avait int&#233;r&#234;t &#224; la d&#233;truire et qui lui f&#238;t la guerre sans rel&#226;che. </em></p><p><em>What is certain is that, from the seventh century BC onward, this social organization was under discussion and attack almost everywhere. [...] The reasons for its decline can be narrowed down to two. One is the gradual shift in ideas over time, resulting from the natural development of the human mind. This shift, by erasing ancient beliefs, also brought down the societal structure that these beliefs had constructed and could alone sustain. The other reason is the existence of a class of individuals who found themselves outside the city&#8217;s organization, suffered because of it, had an interest in its destruction, and waged relentless war against it. </em></p><p>We get it translated into Norwegian little by little. </p><p><em><strong>Det som</strong> er sikkert, er at fra<strong> og med</strong> det <strong>sjuende</strong> &#229;rhundret f.Kr. ble denne sosiale organisasjonen <strong>diskutert</strong> og <strong>angrepet nesten overalt</strong>. </em></p><p>A first alternative emerges: </p><p><em><strong>Hva</strong> er sikkert, er at fra det <strong>syvende</strong> &#229;rhundret f.Kr. <strong>og fremover</strong> ble denne sosiale organisasjonen <strong>utfordet</strong> og <strong>bestridt n&#230;rmest fra alle kanter</strong>. </em></p><ul><li><p><em>Hva er sikkert</em> transforms into <em>det som er sikkert</em>. The latter is a close approximation of the English, <em>what is certain,</em> while the former is quite the calque transcription of the original French, <em>ce qui est certain, (*that, which is certain). <br></em></p></li><li><p><em>Fra og med (det sjuende &#229;rhundret)</em> becomes <em>fra (det sjuende &#229;rhundret) og fremover. </em>Literally, the former means <em>from and including (the seventh century)</em>, while the latter directly transcribes <em>from (the seventh century) (and) onward</em>, or <em>from (the seventh century) going forward</em>. <br></p></li><li><p><em>Ut-fordet </em>is close in form to the German <em>heraus-gefordert</em>, <em>challenged</em>. <em>Bestridt</em> is a good approximation of <em>was under attack</em>, close to the German <em>bestritten</em>, and a descendant of the Old Norse word <em>str&#237;&#240;a</em> (<em>struggle</em>, <em>strive</em>, <em>fight</em>). (Going through languages that are closer to our language of interest than is the original is perfectly sensible.) <br></p></li><li><p><em>Fra alle kanter</em> finds its literal English equivalent in <em>from all sides</em>, while <em>overalt</em> seems closer to <em>everywhere</em>.  </p></li></ul><p><em>&#197;rsakene til dens tilbakegang <strong>kan begrenses</strong> til to. Den ene er <strong>det gradvise skiftet i ideer over tid</strong>, som f&#248;lge av den naturlige utviklingen av menneskesinnet. Ved &#229; fjerne <strong>eldgamle trosforestillinger</strong> <strong>f&#248;rte</strong> dette skiftet ogs&#229; <strong>til at</strong> samfunnsstrukturen som disse <strong>forestillingene</strong> hadde bygget opp og alene kunne <strong>opprettholde</strong>, <strong>falt</strong>.</em></p><p>There is plenty of room here for lexical experimentation, but we&#8217;ll indulge in a few grammatical observations first. </p><ul><li><p><em>Dens </em>in <em>til dens tilbakegang</em> is a non-reflexive possessive pronoun, that is, one that does not refer to (that is, whose possessor is not) the grammatical subject of the sentence. What is referred to is <em>denne sosiale organisasjonen</em> (<em>this social organization</em>) from the previous sentence. In contrast, the reflexive possessive pronoun in Norwegian is <em>sin, sitt, sine</em>. Let&#8217;s compare: <br></p><p><em>Han ser p&#229; hunden sin. (He looks at his [own] dog.) &#8594; sin</em> refers to <em>han</em>, the subject of the sentence.<br><br><em>Han ser p&#229; hunden dens. (He looks at his/her (someone else&#8217;s) dog.) &#8594; dens</em> refers to a third entity. <br></p></li><li><p><em>Ved &#229; fjerne </em>translates <em>by erasing</em>, and we note <em>ved + infinitive</em> for the adverbial participial phrase (<em>by + gerund-participle</em>). </p></li></ul><p>Observing how things translate instills grammar in us: a few data points might not be enough to extrapolate ironclad rules, but they certainly make us familiar with the <em>patterns</em>. Let&#8217;s turn to lexical observations. </p><ul><li><p><em>Kan begrenses </em>is a good rendering of <em>can be narrowed down</em>, but we can also say <em>kan reduseres</em>, or replace the whole of<em> kan begrenses til to </em>with <em>g&#229;r i hovedsak ut p&#229; to ting. </em></p></li><li><p><em>Den gradvise endringen i ideer gjennom tidene</em> is an interesting variant of <em>det gradvise skiftet i ideer over tid. </em>The change takes place <em>in</em> (preposition <em>i</em>) the realm of ideas. <em>Endringen </em>or<em> skiftet </em>av<em> ideer</em> would have a slightly different, more situational meaning: a change of ideas (from one specific idea to another, in a specific individual or group). </p></li><li><p><em>F&#248;rte til at ... falt </em>paraphrases and departs from the causative form of both the English (<em>this shift brought down</em>) and the original French (<em>le changement a fait crouler</em>), which would be rendered more literally by <em>f&#229;tt til &#229; bryte sammen</em>:</p><p><em><br>&#8230; har dette skiftet ogs&#229; f&#229;tt samfunnsstrukturen &#8230;, til &#229; bryte sammen</em>. </p><p><em><br>F&#229; + direct object + til + infinitive</em> seems a good rendering of the causative <em>make/have something/someone do/become something</em>. Other good substitutes for <em>&#229; bryte sammen</em>, for a faithful rendering of <em>crouler</em> (that is,<em> falling while destroying oneself</em>) could be<em> &#229; g&#229; til grunne </em>or<em> &#229; falle</em>.</p></li><li><p><em>Eldgamle </em>refers to very ancient times, but not necessarily to (Greek or Roman) antiquity. The French word <em><a href="https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/antique">antique</a></em><a href="https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/antique"> (</a><em><a href="https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/antique">les antiques croyances</a></em><a href="https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/antique">) has both connotations</a>, a first meaning (I. A.1.) referring to a very ancient period, as in</p><p><em><br>Notre bourgeoisie actuelle, n&#233;e en si peu de temps de la R&#233;volution, n&#8217;a pas rencontr&#233;, en montant, de nobles sur sa t&#234;te. Elle a voulu d&#8217;autant plus &#234;tre une classe tout d&#8217;abord. Elle s&#8217;est fix&#233;e en naissant, et, si bien, qu&#8217;elle a cru na&#239;vement pouvoir tirer de son sein une aristocratie; autant vaut dire, improviser une antiquit&#233;. Cette cr&#233;ation s&#8217;est trouv&#233;e, comme on pouvait pr&#233;voir, non <strong>antique</strong>, mais vieille et caduque. </em>(Michelet, 1846)</p><p><br>and a second (I. A. 2) referring directly to the Greco-Roman legacy which Fustel de Coulanges portrays. The adjective <em>antikk</em> in Norwegian is therefore perhaps better suited. Furthermore, there are several candidates for <em>beliefs</em>: <em>trosforestillinger</em>, <em>troer</em> or <em>oppfattinger</em> convey slightly different nuances. <em>Trosforestillinger</em> might rather refer to specific, structured beliefs, usually of a religious or mythological nature. (A good translation would be <em>belief systems</em> or <em>doctrinal beliefs</em>). <em>Troer</em> is more generalized and can refer to various kinds of beliefs or faiths, religious or otherwise. <em>Oppfattinger</em> generally refers to opinions or perceptions and is not specifically tied to religious or cultural beliefs (<em>opinions</em> or <em>viewpoints</em>). In short, <em>antikke trosforestillinger</em> seems the best bet. </p></li><li><p>Finally, <em>opprettholde</em> translates <em>sustain</em> or <em>soutenir</em> correctly, while<em> underst&#248;tte</em> might be more literal still: <em>under-st&#248;tte </em>for<em> sou-tenir</em>, in its obsolete form <em>sous-tenir</em>, where <em>sous</em> matches <em>under</em> and <em>tenir</em>, <em>to hold</em>, pairs with <em>st&#248;tte</em>, <em>supporter</em> in the physical (<em>a pillar supports a temple</em>) or the metaphorical sense (<em>supporting a friend in need</em>). </p></li></ul><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QSVO!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcf2f1a8-9752-48ee-9c30-c17a6ebe7a84_1280x857.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QSVO!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcf2f1a8-9752-48ee-9c30-c17a6ebe7a84_1280x857.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QSVO!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcf2f1a8-9752-48ee-9c30-c17a6ebe7a84_1280x857.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QSVO!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcf2f1a8-9752-48ee-9c30-c17a6ebe7a84_1280x857.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QSVO!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcf2f1a8-9752-48ee-9c30-c17a6ebe7a84_1280x857.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QSVO!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcf2f1a8-9752-48ee-9c30-c17a6ebe7a84_1280x857.jpeg" width="1280" height="857" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QSVO!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcf2f1a8-9752-48ee-9c30-c17a6ebe7a84_1280x857.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QSVO!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcf2f1a8-9752-48ee-9c30-c17a6ebe7a84_1280x857.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QSVO!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcf2f1a8-9752-48ee-9c30-c17a6ebe7a84_1280x857.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QSVO!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcf2f1a8-9752-48ee-9c30-c17a6ebe7a84_1280x857.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"> Trondheim folkebibliotek, Trondheim, Norway </figcaption></figure></div><p>We read on. </p><p><em>The other reason is the existence of a class of individuals who found themselves outside the city&#8217;s organization, suffered because of it, had an interest in its destruction, and waged relentless war against it.</em></p><p><em><strong>Den andre grunnen</strong> er tilstedev&#230;relsen av <strong>en klasse individer</strong> som befant seg utenfor byens organisasjon, led p&#229; grunn av den, hadde <strong>interesse av</strong> dens <strong>&#248;deleggelse</strong> og f&#248;rte en n&#229;del&#248;s krig mot den.</em></p><ul><li><p><em>Den annen grunnen</em> would be correct too. In Norwegian, neither <em>andre</em> nor <em>annen</em> inherently implies whether or not there are additional reasons beyond the second one. In English <em>second </em>makes no such distinction either, while French distinguishes <em>le second</em> (and last) from <em>le deuxi&#232;me </em>(there may be more).  </p></li><li><p><em>En klasse individer</em> translates naturally <em>a class of individuals</em> and we observe that the construct lacks a preposition in Norwegian (literally, *<em>a class individuals</em>). A few further examples featuring collections:</p><p><em>et knippe n&#248;kler</em> (or <em>et n&#248;kkelknippe</em>) (a <em>bunch</em> or <em>set of keys</em>)</p><p><em>et stort antall d&#248;rer</em> (<em>a large number of doors</em>)</p><p><em>et utvalg b&#248;ker</em> (<em>a selection of books</em>)</p><p><em>en gruppe studenter</em> (<em>a group of students</em>)</p><p><em>et sett regler</em> (<em>a set of rules</em>)</p><p><em>et flokk fugler (a flock of birds</em>)</p><p>It seems that <em>et sett med regler </em>or<em> et flokk med fugler </em>would be correct too. After a quantifier, however, the absence of a preposition seems to prevail: <em>et dusin egg</em> (<em>a dozen eggs</em>), <em>et par sko</em> (<em>a pair of shoes</em>). (We can always ask our web translator to look up such expressions and observe the patterns that take shape: dominant ones and special cases putatively triggered by special circumstances.)</p></li><li><p>One can <em>be</em> <em>interested in something</em> (which attracts their attention and arouses their curiosity) or <em>have an interest in something</em> (in a more pragmatic and utilitarian sense, an interest in something happening, for example, because it benefits them). Along those lines, we can distinguish between <em>&#229; v&#230;re interessert i biologi</em> (<em>to be interested in natural science</em>) and <em>&#229; ha interesse for bevaring av skoger</em> (<em>to have an interest in the conservation of forests</em>). We note the respective prepositions: <em>i</em> and <em>for</em>. English doesn&#8217;t seem to make such a discrimination, while French distinguishes between <em>un int&#233;r&#234;t pour</em> and <em>un int&#233;r&#234;t &#224; quelque chose</em>. We are clearly dealing with the latter acceptation in our text, with <em>hadde interesse av dens &#248;deleggelse</em>. </p></li></ul><p>A remark on <em>&#248;deleggelse</em>. Norwegian nouns formed from a verb (deverbal nouns) are often produced by adding an <em>-else </em>or <em>-(n)ing </em>suffix. In other cases, no suffix is added, the same bunch of letters gets tagged as a verb or noun based on the context. Finally, some nouns of Latin origin resort to the suffix <em>-sjon</em>, especially when they derive from a Latin verb in <em>-ere</em> (<em>emigrere</em> &#8594; <em>emigra-sjon</em>). English equivalents (and other international equivalents of Latin origine) are then in<em> -tion</em>. Here&#8217;s a random assortment.</p><p><em>&#229; forst&#229; &#8594; forst&#229;else (understanding)</em><br><em>&#229; godkjenne &#8594; godkjenning (approval)</em><br><em>&#229; forklare &#8594; forklaring (explanation)</em><br><em>&#229; forhandle &#8594; forhandling (negotiation)</em><br><em>&#229; f&#248;lge &#8594; f&#248;lge (following)</em><br><em>&#229; inng&#229; (ekteskap, en kontrakt) &#8594; inng&#229;else (conclusion)</em><br><em>&#229; tilpasse &#8594; tilpasning (adjustment)</em><br><em>&#229; erkl&#230;re &#8594; erkl&#230;ring (declaration)</em><br><em>&#229; tilby &#8594; tilbud (offer)</em><br><em>&#229; forberede &#8594; forberedelse (preparation)</em><br><em>&#229; bygge &#8594; bygging (construction)</em><br><em>&#229; anskaffe &#8594; anskaffelse (acquisition)</em><br><em>&#229; produsere &#8594; produksjon (production)</em><br><em>&#229; undervise &#8594; undervisning (teaching)</em></p><p>(We note <em>produksjon</em> for <em>production</em>, from the Latin<em> produc-ere</em>.) At first sight, it seems complicated to figure out a demarcation line between the specimens in<em> -else</em> and those in <em>-(n)ing</em>. Let&#8217;s take a closer look at <em>forst&#229;else</em> or <em>forberedelse</em>, as compared to <em>godkjenning</em> or <em>forklaring</em>. The former might seem to emphasize the action in progress, the fact of being in the process of <em>understanding</em> or <em>preparing.</em> The latter, meanwhile, could be said to rather designate the result of the action, the outcome of the process of <em>approval</em> (what has been decided after reflection or consultation) or <em>explanation</em> (the fruit of reasoning). So, as a first approximation, we might assume that action nouns in<em> -else</em> rather focus on the process, action nouns in <em>-(n)ing</em> rather on the result. In fact, things aren&#8217;t quite so simple, and the production of one suffix or the other depends largely, as we&#8217;ll see now, since our interest is piqued and the matter is not foreign to language pedagogy, on the history of the word, or more precisely, the process of its <em>lexicalization</em> (from a newly-formed word to its entry in a language&#8217;s lexicon).  </p><div><hr></div><p>We will follow the philologist &#216;ivin Andersen as he analyzes the process, feeding off a wealth of scientific literature. (Andersen, 2007) A drift in six stages can be observed, he tells us, that brings a verb into a fully <em>nominalized</em> form. In the first stage, we have an unlexicalized, <em>&#8220;imperfect noun&#8221; </em>that<em> </em>still (almost) matches the verbal form. In the second, the noun comes to denote the (specific) result of the action: not the <em>construction</em> <em>process</em>, but <em>that</em> <em>construction</em> <em>in particular</em>. A tension between both meanings, process and result, sets in. A new, resultative meaning appeared but <em>&#8220;the verb inside the noun is still alive&#8221;. </em>In a third stage, a more distant, <em>&#8220;idiosyncratic&#8221;</em> meaning<em> </em>emerges. For instance, <em>sale</em> (January <em>bargains</em>) is <em>salg </em>in Norwegian. It derives from<em> &#229; selge </em>(<em>to sell</em>) but comes to capture something that is neither the process nor the result of <em>selling</em>. In stages four and five, the deverbal noun loses certain abilities that the verb from which it derives possesses. First, the valence or argument structure, for instance the ability to take direct objects or be modified by adverbs. Second, the aspectual range, the ability to represent some kind of temporal features of an action (ongoing, completed, simple event). In the sixth and last stage, lexical differentiation is complete. The noun might no longer evoke its ascendance and be regarded as an isolated lexeme.  </p><p>Pervasive to this six-step model (that ultimately discretizes a continuous movement) is the notion of <em>polysemy</em>. Its drift ties new meanings to the word, which, in the midst of the transition, still resonates with its previous connotations. A halo forms of meanings that relate to each other and overlap. It&#8217;s up to the context to resolve the tension and inform our interpretation. Andersen refers to Pustejovsky and the <em>Generative lexicon theory</em> that the latter developed. Words have a core sense (or a core set of senses) which can expand into a (larger) set of senses triggered by their contextual interactions with other words. They have prominent features, which can be typologized according to several criteria, notably, their argument structure (<em>to give</em> takes three arguments: a <em>giver</em>, a <em>receiver</em> and the <em>thing given</em>), their lexical typing (the word describes a <em>relationship</em>, the input/output of a <em>function</em>, a <em>state</em>, an <em>event</em>), etc. They are not (as the evolutionary emergence of deverbal nouns testifies) to belong exclusively to one drawer: such categories rather present a gradience through which words progress. Importantly, the theory is that of a <em>generative</em> lexicon. Meaning emanates from a semantic core, but its precise resolution is generated by the word&#8217;s entanglements with its context and what they reveal about its instant character. In the nominalization drift pictured above, a new meaning sparks when the noun comes to be used into a context its old acceptation does not really fit. A kind of semantic neologism, that crystallizes and becomes lexeme.</p><p>In the end, what is the history, adrift, of Norwegian deverbal nouns ending in <em>-else</em> or <em>-ing</em>? According to Andersen, some verbs yield a noun in <em>-ing</em> depicting the process, then later an idiosyncratic counterpart in <em>-ning</em>. An example is <em>stiging</em> (process of <em>increasing</em>) and <em>stigning</em> (part of the road on a slope). The former still mimics the verb&#8217;s argument structure and admits complements (<em>an increase in something</em>), the latter no longer does. However, each word has its own history. </p><p><em>Since neither </em>-else <em>nor</em> -ing<em> unambiguously carries process or result meaning, both suffixes are candidates in specific contexts when the need for a specific meaning arises. </em></p><p>Also, if a deverbal noun expressing the process already exists that features one of the suffixes, and a second one expressing the result is being created or required by usage, the latter will take on another &#8220;<em>free&#8221;</em> suffix (or no suffix at all). There is no rule. Statistically, <em>-(n)ing</em> and <em>-else</em> are among the most represented suffixes in Norwegian, with the former being very productive (a neologism machine, which may be added to most verb stems), the latter less so.</p><p>And since there is no rule, &#8220;<em>Norwegian lacks a productive suffix for the coding of process meaning like the English gerund construction, the Danish</em> -en<em> (so-called &#8216;centaur nominal construction&#8217;, cf. Hansen &amp; Heltoft (1994)) or Swedish </em>-ande<em>.</em>&#8220; Here is an illustration:</p><p><em>I enjoy running in the morning.</em> (English gerund)</p><p><em>Jeg nyder l&#248;ben om morgenen.</em> (Danish centaur nominal construction)  </p><p><em>Jag njuter av springande p&#229; morgonen.</em> (Swedish <em>-ande </em>form)</p><p><em>Jeg liker <strong>&#229; l&#248;pe</strong> om morgenen.</em> (Norwegian, no deverbal <em>&#8220;process&#8221;</em> form)</p><p>Acquaintance with the mechanisms of polysemy and word formation seems a tremendous catalyst for practical language learning. Perhaps the ultimate stage of language fluency resides precisely in the ability to sense the cloud of meaning enveloping words and to intuit the right word for capturing a given idea, to smoothly navigate the <em>&#8220;generative lexicon&#8221;</em>. <em>[In retrospect, an early interest in a theme we later came to be obsessed with, for instance while <a href="https://learnfinnishlikeamachine.substack.com/p/6-hurried-footsteps">learning Finnish like a machine</a>.]</em></p><div><hr></div><p>After such linguistic gymnastics, let&#8217;s continue to hear Fustel de Coulanges shed light on the Ancient revolutions. </p><p><em>Il faut &#233;tudier pourquoi et comment les hommes se sont &#233;loign&#233;s par degr&#233;s de cette antique organisation, non pas pour d&#233;choir, mais pour s&#8217;avancer, au contraire, vers une forme sociale plus large et meilleure. </em></p><p><em>We must study why and how people gradually moved away from this ancient organization, not to decline, but rather to advance toward a broader and superior social form.</em></p><p><em>Vi m&#229; studere hvorfor og hvordan <strong>folk</strong> gradvis har <strong>beveget</strong> seg <strong>bort</strong> fra denne <strong>eldgamle</strong> <strong>organisasjonen</strong>, ikke for &#229; <strong>forfalle</strong>, men tvert imot for &#229; <strong>g&#229; mot</strong> en bredere og bedre <strong>samfunnsform</strong>.</em></p><p>We can also come up with the following alternative:</p><p><em>Vi m&#229; studere hvorfor og hvordan <strong>mennesker</strong> gradvis har <strong>fjernet</strong> seg fra denne <strong>antikke</strong> <strong>organiseringen</strong>, ikke for &#229; <strong>g&#229; i forfall</strong>, men tvert imot for &#229; <strong>finne</strong> en bredere og bedre <strong>sosial</strong> <strong>form</strong>. </em></p><p>Interestingly, <em>organiseringen</em> is proposed in lieu of <em>organisasjonen</em>, and we could engage in endless exegesis on the respective <em>degree of verbality</em>, idiosyncrasy and iconicity of the two forms. Here and in the following, we keep reading in the three languages. Our perusal has us attend to grammar at work. At times, some peculiarities or patterns become salient, or we simply wish to get explicitly proficient at understanding some grammatical phenomena.</p><p>Revolutions, it seems, are generated by the drift of ideas, and the insurrection of the discontented. The first revolution, whether in Rome, Athens or Sparta, toppled royalty. </p><p><em>La r&#233;volution qui avait renvers&#233; la royaut&#233; avait modifi&#233; la forme ext&#233;rieure du gouvernement plut&#244;t qu&#8217;elle n&#8217;avait chang&#233; la constitution de la soci&#233;t&#233;. Elle n&#8217;avait pas &#233;t&#233; l&#8217;&#339;uvre des classes inf&#233;rieures, qui avaient int&#233;r&#234;t &#224; d&#233;truire les vieilles institutions, mais de l&#8217;aristocratie, qui voulait les maintenir. Elle n&#8217;avait donc pas &#233;t&#233; faite pour changer l&#8217;organisation antique de la famille, mais bien pour la conserver.  </em></p><p>A conservative revolution.</p><p><em>The revolution which had overthrown royalty had modified the external form of government rather than it had changed the constitution of society. It had not been the work of the lower classes, who had an interest in destroying the old institutions, but of the aristocracy, who wanted to maintain them. It was therefore not made to change the ancient organization of the family, but rather to preserve it.</em></p><p><em>Revolusjonen som hadde styrtet konged&#248;mmet, hadde modifisert <strong>den</strong> ytre formen for styresett mer enn <strong>den</strong> hadde endret samfunnets konstitusjon. <strong>Den</strong> var ikke et verk av de lavere klassene, som hadde interesse av &#229; &#248;delegge de gamle institusjonene, men av aristokratiet, som &#248;nsket &#229; bevare <strong>dem</strong>. <strong>Den</strong> ble derfor ikke innf&#248;rt for &#229; endre <strong>den</strong> gamle familieorganisasjonen, men for &#229; opprettholde den.</em></p><p>In the passage, <em>den</em> appears a couple of times: in <em><strong>den</strong> gamle familieorganisasjonen </em>it&#8217;s the definite article<em>. </em>All other instances are pronouns referring to <em>revolusjonen. </em>Maybe we open a grammar textbook that gives us a hand to generalize: <em>den</em> is the subject or object pronoun referring to a masculine or feminine noun, while <em>det</em> is used if the noun is neuter. English translates all three genders as <em>it</em>.  </p><p><em>Jeg ser hunden. Den er stor. (I see the dog. It is big.)</em></p><p><em>Jeg leser boken. Den er interessant. (I am reading the book. It is interesting.)</em></p><p><em>Jeg kj&#248;pte et bord. Det er rundt. (I bought a table. It is round.)<br><br></em>In the plural the pronoun is <em>dem</em>. It appears in our excerpts as well: <em>som &#248;nsket &#229; bevare </em>dem (<em>who wanted to maintain </em>them).</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CzWq!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa5d92dc7-daae-49d0-b923-9dd830e739a5_3804x3060.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CzWq!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa5d92dc7-daae-49d0-b923-9dd830e739a5_3804x3060.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CzWq!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa5d92dc7-daae-49d0-b923-9dd830e739a5_3804x3060.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CzWq!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa5d92dc7-daae-49d0-b923-9dd830e739a5_3804x3060.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CzWq!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa5d92dc7-daae-49d0-b923-9dd830e739a5_3804x3060.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CzWq!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa5d92dc7-daae-49d0-b923-9dd830e739a5_3804x3060.jpeg" width="1456" height="1171" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CzWq!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa5d92dc7-daae-49d0-b923-9dd830e739a5_3804x3060.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CzWq!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa5d92dc7-daae-49d0-b923-9dd830e739a5_3804x3060.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CzWq!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa5d92dc7-daae-49d0-b923-9dd830e739a5_3804x3060.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CzWq!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa5d92dc7-daae-49d0-b923-9dd830e739a5_3804x3060.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Fjord and forest in Trolla, Trondheim, Norway</figcaption></figure></div><p>Royalty defeated, aristocracy reigns. </p><p><em>La m&#234;me r&#233;volution, sous des formes l&#233;g&#232;rement vari&#233;es, s&#8217;&#233;tait accomplie &#224; Ath&#232;nes, &#224; Sparte, &#224; Rome, dans toutes les cit&#233;s enfin dont l&#8217;histoire nous est connue. Partout elle avait &#233;t&#233; l&#8217;&#339;uvre de l&#8217;aristocratie, partout elle eut pour effet de supprimer la royaut&#233; politique en laissant subsister la royaut&#233; religieuse. &#192; partir de cette &#233;poque et pendant une p&#233;riode dont la dur&#233;e fut fort in&#233;gale pour les diff&#233;rentes villes, le gouvernement de la cit&#233; appartint &#224; l&#8217;aristocratie. </em></p><p><em>The same revolution, in slightly different forms, had taken place in Athens, Sparta and Rome, and in every city <strong>whose</strong> <strong>history is known to us</strong>. Everywhere, it had been the work of the aristocracy, and its effect was to abolish political royalty while leaving religious royalty in place. From that time onwards, and for a period that varied greatly from city to city, the government of the city belonged to the aristocracy.</em></p><p>Let&#8217;s focus on the rendering of <em>whose</em>. </p><p><em>Den samme revolusjonen, i litt forskjellige former, hadde funnet sted i Athen, Sparta og Roma, og i alle byer (som) vi kjenner historien til.</em></p><p>Here, Norwegian reverses the logic in the subordinate: <em>(som) vi kjenner historien til </em>is literally <em>which we know the history of</em>. Another trick substitutes the locative <em>der</em> (<em>where</em>) for the relational <em>whose</em>.</p><p><em>Den samme revolusjonen, i litt forskjellige former, hadde funnet sted i Athen, Sparta og Roma, og i alle byer <strong>der vi kjenner historien</strong>.</em></p><p>In a more formal register, we can also use the relative pronoun <em>hvis</em>. The construct corresponds more closely to the English <em>whose history is known to us </em>but still has the subject-object logic upside-down. </p><p><em>Den samme revolusjonen, i litt forskjellige former, hadde funnet sted i Athen, Sparta og Roma, og i alle byer <strong>hvis historie vi kjenner</strong>.</em></p><p>So what about that same revolution that had taken place in Athens, Sparta, and Rome?</p><p><em>Overalt hadde det v&#230;rt aristokratiets verk, og effekten var at det politiske konged&#248;mmet ble avskaffet, mens det religi&#248;se konged&#248;mmet ble beholdt. Fra da av, og i en periode som varierte sterkt fra by til by, tilh&#248;rte byens styre aristokratiet.</em></p><p>The second great revolution, after the abolition of royalty and the reign of the aristocracy, was the dismemberment of the gens, the primitive family organization. </p><p><em>L&#8217;aristocratie n&#8217;avait op&#233;r&#233; une r&#233;volution politique que pour emp&#234;cher une r&#233;volution sociale. Elle avait pris en mains le pouvoir, moins pour le plaisir de dominer que pour d&#233;fendre contre des attaques ses vieilles institutions, ses antiques principes, son culte domestique, son autorit&#233; paternelle, le r&#233;gime de la gens et enfin le droit priv&#233; que la religion primitive avait &#233;tabli.<br>Ce grand et g&#233;n&#233;ral effort de l&#8217;aristocratie r&#233;pondait donc &#224; un danger. Or il para&#238;t qu&#8217;en d&#233;pit de ses efforts et de sa victoire m&#234;me, le danger subsista. Les vieilles institutions commen&#231;aient &#224; chanceler et de graves changements allaient s&#8217;introduire, dans la constitution intime des familles. </em></p><p><em>The aristocracy had only carried out a political revolution to prevent a social revolution. She had taken power into her own hands,<strong> less for</strong> the pleasure of dominating <strong>than to </strong>defend against attacks her old institutions, her ancient principles, her domestic cult, her paternal authority, the regime of the gens and finally the private law that primitive religion had established.</em><br><em>This great and general effort by the aristocracy therefore responded to a danger. But it seems that despite his efforts and his very victory, the danger remained. The old institutions were beginning to falter and serious changes were going to be introduced into the intimate constitution of families. </em></p><p>We focus on the rendering of <em>less for... than to</em>. </p><p><em>Hun hadde tatt makten i sine egne hender, <strong>ikke s&#229; mye for</strong> &#229; dominere <strong>som for</strong> &#229; forsvare mot angrep sine gamle institusjoner, sine eldgamle prinsipper, sin huslige kult, sin faderlige autoritet, sitt gens-regime og til slutt den privatretten som den primitive religionen hadde etablert.</em></p><p>An alternative is to use the more literal <em>mindre for... enn for</em>.</p><p><em>... <strong>mindre for</strong> gleden ved &#229; dominere <strong>enn for</strong> &#229; forsvare sine gamle institusjoner, ...</em></p><p>A few further examples to practice.</p><p><em>The aristocracy held power,<strong> less for</strong> personal gain <strong>than to</strong> maintain the ancient traditions.</em></p><p><em>Aristokratiet holdt makten, <strong>mindre for </strong>personlig gevinst <strong>enn for</strong> &#229; opprettholde de gamle tradisjonene.<br>Aristokratiet holdt makten, <strong>ikke s&#229; mye for</strong> personlig gevinst <strong>som for</strong> &#229; opprettholde de gamle tradisjonene.</em></p><p><em>They preserved the assembly, <strong>less for </strong>democratic representation <strong>than to</strong> maintain an illusion of choice.</em></p><p><em>De bevarte forsamlingen, <strong>mindre for </strong>demokratisk representasjon <strong>enn for</strong> &#229; opprettholde en illusjon av valg.<br>De bevarte forsamlingen, <strong>ikke s&#229; mye for</strong> demokratisk representasjon<strong> som for</strong> &#229; opprettholde en illusjon av valg.</em></p><p>We translate further.</p><p><em>Denne store og generelle innsatsen <strong>fra</strong> aristokratiet var derfor et svar <strong>p&#229;</strong> en fare. Men <strong>til tross for</strong> anstrengelsene og selve seieren forble faren der. De gamle institusjonene begynte &#229; vakle, og alvorlige endringer var i ferd <strong>med</strong> &#229; bli innf&#248;rt i familienes intime konstitusjon.</em></p><p>We note the prepositional collocations in <em>generelle innsatsen fra (general effort by</em>), <em>et svar p&#229;</em> (<em>an answer to</em>), <em>i ferd med &#229;</em> (<em>were going to</em>), <em>til tross for</em> (<em>despite</em>).</p><p><em>Le vieux r&#233;gime de la gens, fond&#233; par la religion domestique, n&#8217;avait pas &#233;t&#233; d&#233;truit le jour o&#249; les hommes &#233;taient pass&#233;s au r&#233;gime de la cit&#233;. On n&#8217;avait pas voulu ou on n&#8217;avait pas pu y renoncer imm&#233;diatement, les chefs tenant &#224; conserver leur autorit&#233;, les inf&#233;rieurs n&#8217;ayant pas tout de suite la pens&#233;e de s&#8217;affranchir. On avait donc concili&#233; le r&#233;gime de la gens avec celui de la cit&#233;. Mais c&#8217;&#233;taient, au fond, deux r&#233;gimes oppos&#233;s, que l&#8217;on ne devait pas esp&#233;rer d&#8217;allier pour toujours et qui devaient un jour ou l&#8217;autre se faire la guerre. </em></p><p><em>The old regime of the gens, founded by domestic religion, had not been destroyed the day men passed to the regime of the city. There had been an unwillingness or inability to give it up immediately, with leaders keen to retain their authority, and inferiors not immediately thinking of breaking free. The regime of the people had thus been reconciled with that of the city. But in the end, these were two opposing regimes, which could not be expected to be allied forever, and which were bound to go to war with each other sooner or later.</em></p><p>The translation might be faithful to the French form: in the active voice with the French (im)personal pronoun <em>on</em> translated by the Norwegian <em>man</em>. </p><p><em>Det gamle gens-regimet, som var tuftet p&#229; den hjemlige religionen, hadde ikke blitt &#248;delagt den dagen menneskene gikk over til byens regime. Man hadde ikke &#248;nsket eller man hadde ikke kunnet gi det opp umiddelbart, lederne &#248;nsket &#229; beholde sin autoritet, de underordnede hadde ikke umiddelbart tanken om &#229; frigj&#248;re seg. Man hadde derfor forent gens-regimet med bystatens. Men i bunn og grunn var det to motstridende regimer, som man ikke burde h&#229;pe &#229; kombinere for alltid og som f&#248;r eller senere m&#229;tte g&#229; til krig mot hverandre.</em></p><p>Or rewrite it all in the passive voice. </p><p><em>Det var ikke &#248;nsket eller det var ikke mulig &#229; umiddelbart gi det opp, da lederne &#248;nsket &#229; beholde sin autoritet, og de underordnede ikke umiddelbart tenkte p&#229; &#229; frigj&#248;re seg. Derfor hadde gens-regimet blitt forent med bystatens regime. Men i bunn og grunn var disse to regimene motstridende, som det ikke burde h&#229;pes &#229; kunne kombinere for alltid, og som f&#248;r eller senere m&#229;tte komme i konflikt med hverandre.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JS7O!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbb2e14d-2611-412f-85ed-4187be6c6f15_654x268.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JS7O!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbb2e14d-2611-412f-85ed-4187be6c6f15_654x268.png 424w, 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class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">A click on <em>Man</em> suggests <em>Det hadde </em>as the next best option. Clicking rebuilds the text from that position onward into the passive voice.</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>By way of conclusion, how to best practice the kind of translation exercise presented in what precedes? First, we may work out a personal Norwegian translation, no matter how lacking. Then, we may query a good web translator. Strive to understand the correspondences word group by word group. Return to grammar points if necessary. Evaluate for each word, each turn of phrase, possible alternatives. </p><p>With that, we may blind the Norwegian, stare at the English, grasp a blank page, a fountain pen, and strive to find the translation again. Not (entirely) from memory, but <em>rebuilding</em> piece by piece. </p><p>We shall proceed the same way sentence by sentence, erase, start again, at the end of a paragraph, repeat the full paragraph. </p><p>Go hiking in the forest, and on your return, start again. </p><p>Perhaps the most effective exercise.</p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/fustel-de-coulanges-in-the-far-north?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/fustel-de-coulanges-in-the-far-north?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share"><span>Share</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>Fustel de Coulanges, N. D. (1864). <em>La cit&#233; antique</em>. Durand.</p><p>Michelet, J. (1846). <em>Le peuple</em>. Hachette &amp; Paulin.</p><p>Pustejovsky, J. (1998). <em>The generative lexicon</em>. MIT Press.</p><p>Andersen, &#216;. (2007). Deverbal nouns, lexicalization and syntactic change. <em>Nordic Journal of Linguistics</em>, <em>30</em>(1), 55&#8211;86. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0332586507001655">https://doi.org/10.1017/S0332586507001655</a></p><div><hr></div><p><em>As said, this is a republishing of an older essay dated October 2023. That was, it seems, the time of our first attempts at Norwegian. Norwegian has since become pretty fluent, in reading, writing, and speaking. Viewed from a distance, the beginnings are inconceivable. We would like to ask our hesitant self: </em>what is it that you don&#8217;t understand? It&#8217;s clear<em>. At a certain point, the keys turn in the lock, and it&#8217;s hard to recall the fog in the mind of that past self who was left standing on the threshold, unable to imagine what the inside of the house looked like. A language is a house that we make our own and inhabit.  </em></p><p><em>Fustel de Coulanges does not, a priori, have much to do with the Far North (at least, not with regard to this text on the ancient world). The convergence of these two worlds is simply a matter of the simultaneous existence, back in the day, of two interests: the Norwegian and this classic, which had arrived, who knows how, within our field of vision. The essay thus illustrates the possibility of proceeding with text exposure in the target language even when the occasion is in a familiar language. All that is needed is a reliable translator.  </em></p><p><em>As a final comment from the time of our revision, which is also that of our </em>learning Finnish like a machine<em>, and looking back at the lexicalization of nouns derived from verbs, (some older) <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Finnish_verb_forms#Fourth_infinitive">Finnish grammars deem the deverbal noun closest to its verbal origin (formed by appending the suffix </a></em><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Finnish_verb_forms#Fourth_infinitive">-minen</a><em><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Finnish_verb_forms#Fourth_infinitive">) to be (in some of its use cases) a 4th infinitive</a>. As one, it partakes, or formerly partook, in conjunction with </em>olla<em> (</em>to be<em>), in the expression of a command or a prohibition: se on </em>tekeminen<em>, it must be done. The form&#8217;s lexical fixation in a few idioms (for example, sinne ei ole </em>menemist&#228;<em>, one must not go there) further highlights the drift, from the verb, towards the lexicalization of the noun. A similar movement works across both languages, Norwegian and Finnish (as well as across many other languages), and there is no doubt that explicitly identifying it aids in the recognition of patterns, in the ease of navigating language. Two subsequent essays examine <a href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/future-and-movement-i">the grammaticalization of the future tense</a> <a href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/future-and-movement-2">across several languages</a>. </em></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[An odd coincidence]]></title><description><![CDATA[On past tense formation, strolling through Indo-European, Uralic and other kins of languages]]></description><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/an-odd-coincidence</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/an-odd-coincidence</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Galois]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Tue, 04 Feb 2025 16:35:42 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RH4t!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ab68130-ffd7-43fb-8ce1-37e9b61262a4_1591x854.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Leafing through the Wikipedia encyclopedia in Hungarian, the thought comes to us of the possibility, albeit frail, of a strange grammatical pattern, transversal to languages that even immemorial history separates. On the <em><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesta_Hungarorum">Gesta Hungarorum</a></em>, for example, two medieval Hungarian manuscripts, priceless sources in Hungarian history and linguistics. The first (circa 1200, by a notary known as <em>Anonymous</em>) resonates with myths and legends: it evokes the Exodus from the ancestral land of Scythia. The second (circa 1283, by <em>Simon of Keza</em>), also known as the <em>Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum</em>, covers the period from the Hungarian conquest (of the Carpathian basin) to the time of King Ladislas IV.  </p><blockquote><p><em>Fikt&#237;v h&#337;sei a honfoglal&#225;s sor&#225;n pedig <strong>kital&#225;lt</strong> csat&#225;kat <strong>v&#237;vtak</strong> <strong>elk&#233;pzelt</strong> n&#233;pek &#233;s a honfoglal&#225;s kor&#225;ban a K&#225;rp&#225;t-medenc&#233;ben nem l&#233;tez&#337; hatalmak ellen. </em></p></blockquote><p><em>&#8220;Its fictional heroes <strong>fought</strong> <strong>fictional</strong> battles against <strong>imagined</strong> peoples and powers that did not exist in the Carpathian Basin at the time of the conquest.&#8221;</em></p><p><em>(Wikipedia, Gesta Hungarorum) </em></p><p>What stands out in the highlighted Hungarian words is simply their featuring <em>dental</em> phonemes near the end of the word, and their congruence with the expression of the past: as the English translation testifies, these are the verbs conjugated in the past tense and past participles in the short passage (with the exception of the verb <em>to be</em>, from which an irregularity can be anticipated). </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!A9AD!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc06e43e6-e71a-426e-81ba-e19f2e6f8676_600x521.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!A9AD!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc06e43e6-e71a-426e-81ba-e19f2e6f8676_600x521.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!A9AD!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc06e43e6-e71a-426e-81ba-e19f2e6f8676_600x521.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!A9AD!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc06e43e6-e71a-426e-81ba-e19f2e6f8676_600x521.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!A9AD!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc06e43e6-e71a-426e-81ba-e19f2e6f8676_600x521.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!A9AD!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc06e43e6-e71a-426e-81ba-e19f2e6f8676_600x521.jpeg" width="520" height="451.53333333333336" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c06e43e6-e71a-426e-81ba-e19f2e6f8676_600x521.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:521,&quot;width&quot;:600,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:520,&quot;bytes&quot;:133874,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!A9AD!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc06e43e6-e71a-426e-81ba-e19f2e6f8676_600x521.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!A9AD!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc06e43e6-e71a-426e-81ba-e19f2e6f8676_600x521.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!A9AD!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc06e43e6-e71a-426e-81ba-e19f2e6f8676_600x521.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!A9AD!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc06e43e6-e71a-426e-81ba-e19f2e6f8676_600x521.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">King Attila depicted as the first Hungarian king in the Chronicon Pictum (K&#233;pes kr&#243;nika) by Mark of Kalt, c.1360, National Sz&#233;ch&#233;nyi Library, Budapest</figcaption></figure></div><p>Let's understand more closely the Hungarian sentence, as always by identifying with English word group by word group. First, we highlight the minimal sentence, stripped of all modifiers, adverbial adjuncts of time and the long adverbial complements starting with <em>against</em>. </p><blockquote><p><em>Fikt&#237;v <strong>h&#337;sei</strong> a honfoglal&#225;s sor&#225;n pedig kital&#225;lt <strong>csat&#225;kat v&#237;vtak </strong>elk&#233;pzelt n&#233;pek &#233;s a honfoglal&#225;s kor&#225;ban a K&#225;rp&#225;t-medenc&#233;ben nem l&#233;tez&#337; hatalmak ellen.</em></p></blockquote><p>This kernel translates into <em>&#8230;his heroes fought battles&#8230; </em>with <em>h&#337;sei</em> (<em>his heroes</em>) a nominative possessive form of <em>h&#337;s</em> (3rd person singular possessor with plural possessed), <em>v&#237;vtak (fought) </em>our verb in the past indicative and <em>csat&#225;kat (battles)</em>, as might be expected, an accusative plural.<em> honfoglal&#225;s </em>further<em> </em>refers to the<em> Hungarian Conquest</em> and our translation omitted the redundancy highlighted below.  </p><blockquote><p><em>Fikt&#237;v h&#337;sei <strong>a honfoglal&#225;s sor&#225;n</strong> pedig kital&#225;lt csat&#225;kat v&#237;vtak elk&#233;pzelt n&#233;pek &#233;s<strong> a honfoglal&#225;s kor&#225;ban </strong>a K&#225;rp&#225;t-medenc&#233;ben nem l&#233;tez&#337; hatalmak ellen.</em></p></blockquote><p><em>sor&#225;n</em>, an adverb, means <em>during</em> and <em>kor-&#225;-ban </em>the <em>inessive</em> possessive of <em>kor (time)</em>, so, <em>in its time</em>. (A very literal (improper) translation of <em>a honfoglal&#225;s kor&#225;ban </em>would be <em>*in the Hungarian Conquest its time</em>.)</p><blockquote><p><em>Fikt&#237;v h&#337;sei a honfoglal&#225;s sor&#225;n pedig kital&#225;lt <strong>csat&#225;kat v&#237;vtak</strong> elk&#233;pzelt <strong>n&#233;pek</strong> <strong>&#233;s</strong> a honfoglal&#225;s kor&#225;ban a K&#225;rp&#225;t-medenc&#233;ben nem l&#233;tez&#337; <strong>hatalmak</strong> <strong>ellen</strong>.</em></p></blockquote><p>Here, we have <em>&#8230;fought battles (csat&#225;kat v&#237;vtak) against (ellen) people and powers (n&#233;pek &#233;s hatalmak)&#8230; </em>where the preposition <em>ellen</em> calls the nominative (plural) in <em>n&#233;pek </em>and <em>hatalmak</em>. <em> </em></p><blockquote><p><em>Fikt&#237;v h&#337;sei a honfoglal&#225;s sor&#225;n pedig kital&#225;lt csat&#225;kat v&#237;vtak elk&#233;pzelt n&#233;pek &#233;s a honfoglal&#225;s kor&#225;ban <strong>a K&#225;rp&#225;t-medenc&#233;ben nem l&#233;tez&#337;</strong> hatalmak ellen.</em></p></blockquote><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/an-odd-coincidence?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/an-odd-coincidence?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share"><span>Share</span></a></p><p>The present participle <em>l&#233;tez&#337;</em> is an attributive modifier of <em>hatalmak </em>and the clause it leads translates in to<em> powers that did not exist in the Carpathian Basin </em>(literally, <em>*in the Carpathian Basin not existing powers</em>) - which leave us with our past and past participles of interest: </p><blockquote><p><em>Fikt&#237;v h&#337;sei a honfoglal&#225;s sor&#225;n pedig <strong>kital&#225;lt</strong> <strong>csat&#225;kat </strong>v&#237;vtak elk&#233;pzelt n&#233;pek &#233;s a honfoglal&#225;s kor&#225;ban a K&#225;rp&#225;t-medenc&#233;ben nem l&#233;tez&#337; hatalmak ellen.</em></p></blockquote><p><em>kital&#225;l<strong>t</strong></em> is the past participle of the verb <em>kital&#225;l</em> (to figure out, to invent, to make up) and is here attribute of <em>csat&#225;kat</em>, so <em>invented (fictive) battles. </em>Let's feel its conjugation table. The present tense (<em>jelen id&#337;</em>)  indefinite makes </p><p><em>&#233;n kital&#225;lok<br>te kital&#225;lsz<br>&#337; kital&#225;l<br>mi kital&#225;lunk<br>ti kital&#225;ltok<br>&#337;k kital&#225;lnak</em></p><p>and we do notice the addition to the stem of a dental sound in the past tense (<em>m&#250;lt id&#337;</em>) indefinite</p><p><em>&#233;n kital&#225;l<strong>t</strong>am<br>te kital&#225;l<strong>t</strong>&#225;l<br>&#337; kital&#225;l<strong>t</strong><br>mi kital&#225;l<strong>t</strong>unk<br>ti kital&#225;lta<strong>t</strong>ok<br>&#337;k kital&#225;l<strong>t</strong>ak</em></p><blockquote><p><em>Fikt&#237;v h&#337;sei a honfoglal&#225;s sor&#225;n pedig kital&#225;lt csat&#225;kat v&#237;vtak <strong>elk&#233;pzelt n&#233;pek </strong>&#233;s a honfoglal&#225;s kor&#225;ban a K&#225;rp&#225;t-medenc&#233;ben nem l&#233;tez&#337; hatalmak ellen.</em></p></blockquote><p>The same can be said of <em>elk&#233;pzelt</em>, past participle of <em>elk&#233;pzel (to imagine)</em> whose past indefinite makes <em>elk&#233;pzelt</em> in the third person singular. Eventually, <em>v&#237;vtak </em>is the third person plural past indefinite of <em>v&#237;v</em>. Its present counterpart is <em>v&#237;vnak</em> and the past &#8220;dental-suffix&#8221; is here clear too.    </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyTS!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F904183ef-899d-4f62-a1f6-c2f4df80ccc6_1280x781.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyTS!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F904183ef-899d-4f62-a1f6-c2f4df80ccc6_1280x781.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyTS!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F904183ef-899d-4f62-a1f6-c2f4df80ccc6_1280x781.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyTS!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F904183ef-899d-4f62-a1f6-c2f4df80ccc6_1280x781.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyTS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F904183ef-899d-4f62-a1f6-c2f4df80ccc6_1280x781.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyTS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F904183ef-899d-4f62-a1f6-c2f4df80ccc6_1280x781.jpeg" width="1280" height="781" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/904183ef-899d-4f62-a1f6-c2f4df80ccc6_1280x781.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:781,&quot;width&quot;:1280,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:444664,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyTS!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F904183ef-899d-4f62-a1f6-c2f4df80ccc6_1280x781.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyTS!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F904183ef-899d-4f62-a1f6-c2f4df80ccc6_1280x781.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyTS!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F904183ef-899d-4f62-a1f6-c2f4df80ccc6_1280x781.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyTS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F904183ef-899d-4f62-a1f6-c2f4df80ccc6_1280x781.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Budapest, Hungary</figcaption></figure></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p>This already well-established trend is confirmed by the following extracts from the chronicles of Hungarian history.</p><blockquote><p><em>Anonymus <strong>volt</strong> az els&#337;, aki az Attil&#225;t&#243;l val&#243; sz&#225;rmaz&#225;s lehet&#337;s&#233;g&#233;t <strong>megfogalmazta</strong>.</em></p></blockquote><p><em>&#8220;Anonymus <strong>was</strong> the first who <strong>formulated</strong> the possibility of descent from Attila.&#8221;</em></p><p><em>(Wikipedia, Gesta Hungarorum) </em></p><blockquote><p><em>Ennek a kir&#225;lynak az ivad&#233;k&#225;b&#243;l <strong>sarjadt</strong> az igen nevezetes &#233;s roppant hatalm&#250; Attila kir&#225;ly.</em></p></blockquote><p><em>&#8220;From this king's lineage <strong>descended</strong> the very famous and immensely powerful King Attila.&#8221;</em></p><p><em>(Gesta Hungarorum, ca. 1200)</em></p><blockquote><p><em>Akkor a v&#225;laszt&#225;suk arra <strong>esett</strong>, hogy majd Pann&#243;nia f&#246;ldj&#233;t keresik fel. Err&#337;l ugyanis a sz&#225;llong&#243; h&#237;rb&#337;l azt <strong>hallott&#225;k</strong>, hogy az Attila kir&#225;ly f&#246;ldje, akinek az ivad&#233;k&#225;b&#243;l &#193;lmos vez&#233;r, &#193;rp&#225;d apja <strong>sz&#225;rmazott</strong>.  </em></p></blockquote><p><em>&#8220;Then their choice <strong>fell</strong> on seeking the land of Pannonia. For they <strong>had heard</strong> from rumors that it was the land of King Attila, from whose line <strong>descended</strong> Chief &#193;lmos, &#193;rp&#225;d's father.&#8221;</em></p><p><em>(Gesta Hungarorum, ca. 1200) </em></p><blockquote><p><em>Az &#218;r megtestes&#252;l&#233;se ut&#225;ni n&#233;gysz&#225;zegyedik, a magyarok Pann&#243;ni&#225;ba <strong>t&#246;rt&#233;nt</strong> bej&#246;vetel&#233;t&#337;l <strong>sz&#225;m&#237;tott</strong> huszonnyolcadik esztend&#337;ben a magyarok, vagyis a hunok a r&#243;maiak szok&#225;sa szerint egyet&#233;rt&#337; akarattal kir&#225;lyul <strong>emelt&#233;k</strong> maguk f&#246;l&#233; Attil&#225;t, Bendeg&#250;z fi&#225;t, aki el&#337;bb a kapit&#225;nyok k&#246;z&#233; <strong>tartozott</strong>; </em></p></blockquote><p><em>&#8220;In the four hundred and first year after the Lord's incarnation, and in the twenty-eighth year after the Hungarians' entry into Pannonia, the Hungarians, or rather the Huns, following Roman custom, by unanimous will <strong>raised</strong> Attila, son of Bendeg&#250;z, who <strong>had</strong> previously <strong>belonged</strong> among the captains, as king above themselves.&#8221;</em></p><p><em>(K&#233;pes Kr&#243;nika, 1358)</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpsU!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b0a81f2-dd97-4793-a90a-88f91373d26a_1920x1439.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpsU!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b0a81f2-dd97-4793-a90a-88f91373d26a_1920x1439.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpsU!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b0a81f2-dd97-4793-a90a-88f91373d26a_1920x1439.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpsU!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b0a81f2-dd97-4793-a90a-88f91373d26a_1920x1439.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpsU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b0a81f2-dd97-4793-a90a-88f91373d26a_1920x1439.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpsU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b0a81f2-dd97-4793-a90a-88f91373d26a_1920x1439.jpeg" width="618" height="463.07554945054943" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/4b0a81f2-dd97-4793-a90a-88f91373d26a_1920x1439.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1091,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:618,&quot;bytes&quot;:1088803,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpsU!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b0a81f2-dd97-4793-a90a-88f91373d26a_1920x1439.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpsU!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b0a81f2-dd97-4793-a90a-88f91373d26a_1920x1439.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpsU!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b0a81f2-dd97-4793-a90a-88f91373d26a_1920x1439.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpsU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b0a81f2-dd97-4793-a90a-88f91373d26a_1920x1439.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Attila, King of the Huns, besieges Aquileia, miniature from the <em>K&#233;pes Kr&#243;nika</em></figcaption></figure></div><p>The <em>K&#233;pes Kr&#243;nika (Chronicon Pictum)</em>, from which the last passage is taken, continues to recount the Hungarian myth of origins. The collection of illustrated historical chronicles written by Marc de Kalt in 1358, on commission from King Louis I, is based on a lost manuscript of the <em>Gesta Ungarorum</em> dating from the end of the 11th century and the time of Saint Ladislas. It endeavors to recount the continuity of the Hun and Hungarian reigns. Unequivocally, <em>emelt&#233;k</em> and <em>tartozott</em> are the two past forms translated by <em>raised</em> and <em>had belonged</em> respectively. By contrast, the use of the past participles <em>t&#246;rt&#233;nt</em> and <em>sz&#225;m&#237;tott</em>, not explicitly rendered in the English translation, requires clarification. <em><strong>t&#246;rt&#233;nt</strong></em> <em>(happened) </em>is used as an attributive adjective to the ablative <em>bej&#246;vetel&#233;t&#337;l (from the entry)</em>: <em>t&#246;rt&#233;nt bej&#246;vetel&#233;t&#337;l </em>is literally (and improperly) <em>*from the happened entry [into Pannonia]</em>, that is, more regularly,<em> after the entry [into Pannonia] had happened</em>, where a natural and fluid translations further omits<em> had happened</em>, as it is redundant with the preposition <em>after. </em>Similarly <em><strong>sz&#225;m&#237;tott </strong>(counted)</em> is employed as an attributive adjective to <em>esztend&#337;ben. </em>Whereas the suffix<em> -t&#337;l </em>betrayed the ablative,<em> -ben </em>signals the inessive, the case of the space in which we are. <em>huszonnyolcadik esztend&#337;ben </em>means<em> in the 28th year </em>and a fluent translation here again omits the excess zeal in a literal <em>*in the 28th counted year</em>.  </p><p>Ultimately, the past tense, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_verbs#Past_tense">the grammar book tell us</a>, <em>&#8220;is expressed with the suffix <strong>-t</strong> or <strong>-ott/-ett/-&#246;tt</strong> and inflects for person and number.&#8221;</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share Old Norse Linguist&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share"><span>Share Old Norse Linguist</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>We have <a href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/old-norse-weak-verbs-and-dental-suffix">spoken at length</a> about <a href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/old-norse-weak-verbs-and-dental-suffix-d02">the dental suffix</a> that runs through the formation of past tense in Germanic languages, a legacy of Proto-Germanic. Observing the phenomenon outside the spectrum is at least intriguing, and calls for further comparative studies. </p><p>Here again, we prefer historical accounts, for their several virtues. Firstly, they abound in past-tense forms, which are presently our main interest. Second, they are particularly propitious for comparative linguistics: they teem with proper nouns and dates, highly recognizable from one language to another, which act as landmarks, secure rivets on which parallel exegesis can be fixed. The following concerns the peace negotiations between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary in 1444:</p><blockquote><p><em>6 Mart 1444'te ilk m&#252;zakereler <strong>ba&#351;lad&#305;</strong>. Ard&#305;ndan 24 Nisan 1444'te Kral Ladislas II. Murad'a m&#252;zakereleri kabul etti&#287;ini belirten bir mektupla birlikte el&#231;isi Stojka Gisdani&#231;'i Edirne'ye <strong>g&#246;nderdi</strong>. Esirlerin teatisinde var&#305;lan uzla&#351;&#305;n&#305;n ard&#305;ndan toprak meseleleri m&#252;zakere <strong>edildi</strong>. Osmanl&#305;lar, Macarlar&#305;n 1443-1444 seferinde kaybettikleri G&#252;vercinlik (Goluba&#231;) ve Semendire'nin iadesini temine <strong>&#231;al&#305;&#351;t&#305;lar</strong>. Ancak Karaman Beyi &#304;brahim'in Anadolu'daki sald&#305;r&#305;lar&#305; nedeniyle apar topar 12 Haziran'da mevcut ko&#351;ullarda bar&#305;&#351;a raz&#305; <strong>oldular</strong>.</em></p></blockquote><p>Perusing the text, however sybaritic before translation, is enough to intrigue us. The final words of the five sentences are not entirely random: they have similarities of form. <em>ba&#351;lad&#305;, g&#246;nderdi, edildi </em>all end in <em>-di</em> while <em>&#231;al&#305;&#351;t&#305;lar </em>and<em> oldular </em>share the ending <em>-lar</em>, or even <em>-d/t + vowel + lar</em>. A sentence-ending verb cannot come as a surprise to a Germanist, of whom the learner of Old Norse is a close relative. If these five Turkish forms were our past tense verbs, we would certainly be holding our dental suffixes. Let's take a look at the English translation, and indulge in our favorite exercise: parallel reading and comprehension. We highlight verbs in the past tense. </p><p><em>&#8220;The initial negotiations <strong>began</strong> on March 6, 1444. Then on April 24, 1444, King Ladislas <strong>sent</strong> his envoy Stojka Gisdani&#263; to Edirne with a letter indicating to Murad II that he <strong>accepted</strong> the negotiations. After reaching an agreement on the exchange of prisoners, land issues <strong>were negotiated</strong>. The Ottomans <strong>tried</strong> to secure the return of G&#252;vercinlik (Golubac) and Smederevo, which the Hungarians <strong>had lost </strong>in their 1443-1444 campaign. However, due to the attacks of Ibrahim, Bey of Karaman, in Anatolia, they hastily <strong>agreed</strong> to peace under the existing conditions on June 12.&#8221; </em> </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pIAM!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff9450506-96eb-411a-a822-4a171bbee8be_781x1118.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pIAM!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff9450506-96eb-411a-a822-4a171bbee8be_781x1118.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pIAM!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff9450506-96eb-411a-a822-4a171bbee8be_781x1118.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pIAM!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff9450506-96eb-411a-a822-4a171bbee8be_781x1118.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pIAM!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff9450506-96eb-411a-a822-4a171bbee8be_781x1118.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pIAM!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff9450506-96eb-411a-a822-4a171bbee8be_781x1118.jpeg" width="482" height="689.9820742637644" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/f9450506-96eb-411a-a822-4a171bbee8be_781x1118.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:false,&quot;imageSize&quot;:&quot;normal&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:1118,&quot;width&quot;:781,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:482,&quot;bytes&quot;:479817,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pIAM!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff9450506-96eb-411a-a822-4a171bbee8be_781x1118.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pIAM!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff9450506-96eb-411a-a822-4a171bbee8be_781x1118.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pIAM!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff9450506-96eb-411a-a822-4a171bbee8be_781x1118.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pIAM!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff9450506-96eb-411a-a822-4a171bbee8be_781x1118.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Sultan Murad II at archery practice, 1523, Bilkent University</figcaption></figure></div><p>The first sentence is clear: under our hypothesis, <em><strong>ba&#351;lad&#305;</strong></em> is the verb <em><strong>began</strong></em>. That leaves a date, <em>6 Mart 1444'te</em>, and a subject noun phrase, <em>ilk m&#252;zakereler </em>for<em> the initial negotiations</em>. Let's test our proficiency in a language we didn't know a few hours ago on the second one.  We emphasize everything we recognize transparently. </p><blockquote><p><em>Ard&#305;ndan <strong>24 Nisan 1444'te</strong> <strong>Kral Ladislas II.</strong> <strong>Murad'a</strong> m&#252;zakereleri kabul etti&#287;ini belirten bir mektupla birlikte el&#231;isi <strong>Stojka Gisdani&#231;'i</strong> <strong>Edirne'ye</strong> g&#246;nderdi. </em></p></blockquote><p><em>&#8220;Then on <strong>April 24, 1444</strong>, <strong>King Ladislas</strong> sent his envoy <strong>Stojka Gisdani&#263; to Edirne</strong> with a letter indicating<strong> to Murad II</strong> that he accepted the negotiations.&#8221; </em></p><p>We also assumed that <em>g&#246;nderdi</em> to be a past tense verb. Its position near <em>Stojka Gisdani&#231;'i</em>, which would then serve as its direct object, speaks for its being the main clause&#8217;s verb, <em>sent</em>. <em>Ard&#305;ndan </em>could well start the time adjunct given its situation <em>(then)</em>. This leaves<em> his envoy</em> <em>[&#8230;]</em> <em>with a letter indicating</em> <em>[&#8230;]</em> <em>that he accepted the negotiations</em> to our mapping speculation. <em>el&#231;isi </em>is a good candidate for<em> [Stojka Gisdani&#231;&#8217;s] envoy </em>given the proximity in location and ending, <em>-i. </em>The treasure hunt continues. If <em>el&#231;isi Stojka Gisdani&#231;'i</em> is indeed <em>his envoy</em>, object of <em>sent</em>, the <em>-i</em> ending might be typical of the direct object case. The exegesis of our first sentence had expedited the correspondence of <em>ilk m&#252;zakereler</em> with <em>the initial negotiations</em>. <em>m&#252;zakereleri </em>is an obvious match for <em>negotiations</em>, this time in the accusative as a direct object of <em>accepted</em>. All that remains is <em>with a letter indicating</em> <em>[&#8230;]</em> <em>that he accepted. </em>Firstly, we can assume <em>with a letter</em> to be closest to the phrase its accompanies, <em>el&#231;isi Stojka Gisdani&#231;'i (his envoy Stojka Gisdani&#263;) </em>and<em> that he accepted </em>closest to its presumed direct object, <em>m&#252;zakereleri (the negociations). </em>Secondly, the ending<em> </em>of <em>etti&#287;ini</em> could again betray an accusative. In <em>with a letter indicating</em> <em>[&#8230;]</em> <em>that he accepted, a letter </em>is no accusative, maybe an instrumental case. The only element that can carry the accusative is <em>acceptance</em>, a nominalized flavor of the verb phrase <em>that he accepted</em>, direct object to <em>indicating</em>. From there on, we are content with assessing electronically our guesses. <em>bir mektupla birlikte </em>is indeed <em>with a letter</em>, <em>-la </em>marking the instrumental case. In <em>kabul etti&#287;ini, kabul </em>is the substantive <em>acceptance, </em>the prefix <em>et- </em>verbalizes it while -<em>ti&#287;-</em> forms the past participle and <em>-ini </em>marks the accusative possessive. Literally, something such as *<em>his (having) accepted.</em> The suffix<em> -en </em>in<em> belirten </em>marks the present participle,<em> indicating. </em></p><p>Incidentally, we increased our lexicon, inferred possible desinences of the nominative (plural), accusative and instrumental, observed how we verbalize a noun, and form the possessive and the past participle, among others. It is in this way, <em>guided by curiosity and bilingual reading</em>, that we believe it is most delectable and effective to <em>learn a new language</em> - rather than through primary, rebarbative exercises ordered in booklets for novices. We have set some foundations. We may forget Turkish for a long time, but if we come back to it, we will already feel a little at home. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DoKE!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F500f1d18-e1f6-4c93-94a9-f01ffcd4d005_800x1159.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DoKE!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F500f1d18-e1f6-4c93-94a9-f01ffcd4d005_800x1159.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DoKE!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F500f1d18-e1f6-4c93-94a9-f01ffcd4d005_800x1159.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DoKE!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F500f1d18-e1f6-4c93-94a9-f01ffcd4d005_800x1159.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DoKE!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F500f1d18-e1f6-4c93-94a9-f01ffcd4d005_800x1159.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DoKE!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F500f1d18-e1f6-4c93-94a9-f01ffcd4d005_800x1159.jpeg" width="514" height="744.6575" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/500f1d18-e1f6-4c93-94a9-f01ffcd4d005_800x1159.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1159,&quot;width&quot;:800,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:514,&quot;bytes&quot;:427992,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DoKE!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F500f1d18-e1f6-4c93-94a9-f01ffcd4d005_800x1159.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DoKE!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F500f1d18-e1f6-4c93-94a9-f01ffcd4d005_800x1159.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DoKE!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F500f1d18-e1f6-4c93-94a9-f01ffcd4d005_800x1159.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DoKE!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F500f1d18-e1f6-4c93-94a9-f01ffcd4d005_800x1159.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">A map of Constantinople in Buondelmonti&#8217;s<em> Liber Insularum Archipelagi</em>. Paris, Biblioth&#232;que nationale de France, D&#233;partement des Cartes et Plans</figcaption></figure></div><p>We can now draw some conclusions from our observations. The past tense of Turkish verbs (at least those we have encountered) is systematically formed with <em>stem + suffix di/du + person marker (possibly null)</em>. We have namely </p><ul><li><p><em>ba&#351;la-<strong>d&#305;</strong>-&#248;: stem (ba&#351;la-) + past suffix (-d&#305;) + null person marker  </em></p></li><li><p><em>g&#246;nder-<strong>di</strong>-&#248;: stem (g&#246;nder-) + past suffix (-di) + null person marker </em></p></li><li><p><em>edil-<strong>di</strong>-&#248;: stem (edil-) + past suffix (-di) + null person marker  </em></p></li><li><p><em>&#231;al&#305;&#351;-<strong>t&#305;</strong>-lar: stem (&#231;al&#305;&#351;-) + past suffix (-t&#305;) + person marker (-lar) </em></p></li><li><p><em>ol-<strong>du</strong>-lar: stem (ol-) + past suffix (-du) + person marker (-lar) </em></p></li></ul><p>where the person markers <em>-&#248; </em>and<em> -lar </em>mark the 3rd person singular and plural respectively. (An attentive mind will wonder about <em>ba&#351;la-d&#305;-&#248;</em>'s lack of congruence with its plural subject <em>ilk m&#252;zakereler</em>. Turkish, it seems, takes some license with subject-verb agreement, and the singular is preferred for an inanimate plural subject. Here, the subject can also be interpreted as a collective singular concept: English can after all also say <em>the negotiations began</em>.) </p><p>Ultimately, the past tense suffix in Turkish will be chosen among </p><p><em>-di/-d&#305;/-du/-d&#252;<br>-ti/-t&#305;/-tu/-t&#252;</em></p><p>based on some <em>vowel harmony </em>rules. A watered-down form of vowel harmony is well known to practitioners of Old Norse or Icelandic: the phonetic <em>u-</em> and <em>i-omlyd (umlaut)</em>, which we shall review shortly. In short, a word's vowels (especially during declension) adjust in <em>height</em>, <em>frontness</em> or <em>roundedness</em>, to be more &#8220;in tune&#8221; with each other.  </p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share Old Norse Linguist&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share"><span>Share Old Norse Linguist</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>The Hungarian-Ottoman peace of 1444 is soon breached by Hungarian King W&#322;adys&#322;aw III. The battle of Varna proves fatal to him: Murad II&#8217;s triumph paves the way for the Ottoman takeover of Constantinople in 1453. Ottomans too are mindful of dynastic historiography. While Hungarians trace a Hunnic lineage through the <em>Gesta Hungarorum</em>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murad_II#As_ghazi_sultan">Murad II models himself after the legendary </a><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murad_II#As_ghazi_sultan">Ghazi</a></em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murad_II#As_ghazi_sultan"> kings</a>: </p><blockquote><p><em>He drew from the noble behavior of the nameless Caliphs in the Battalname, an epic about a fictional Arab warrior who fought against the Byzantines, and modelled his actions on theirs. He was careful to embody the simplicity, piety, and noble sense of justice that was part of the ghazi king persona. [&#8230;]</em></p><p><em>Murad  II successfully painted himself as a simple soldier who did not partake in royal excesses, and as a noble ghazi sultan who sought to consolidate Muslim power against non-Muslims such as the Venetians and Hungarians.</em></p></blockquote><p>History books and myths also served imperial Japan. The<em> Kojiki (&#21476;&#20107;&#35352;, Archives of Ancient Affairs) </em>and the <em>Nihon Shoki (&#26085;&#26412;&#26360;&#32000;, Chronicles of Japan) </em>pass for the oldest chronicles: the former is commissioned by the imperial reign and completed in the early 8th century. It legitimizes Yamato's rule by a divine lineage, and noble families of a new rank society by a chosen genealogy. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wVrC!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fef723493-6079-4d7c-bee4-b89b9088bc3f_800x1347.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wVrC!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fef723493-6079-4d7c-bee4-b89b9088bc3f_800x1347.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wVrC!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fef723493-6079-4d7c-bee4-b89b9088bc3f_800x1347.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wVrC!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fef723493-6079-4d7c-bee4-b89b9088bc3f_800x1347.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wVrC!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fef723493-6079-4d7c-bee4-b89b9088bc3f_800x1347.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wVrC!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fef723493-6079-4d7c-bee4-b89b9088bc3f_800x1347.png" width="432" height="727.38" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/ef723493-6079-4d7c-bee4-b89b9088bc3f_800x1347.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1347,&quot;width&quot;:800,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:432,&quot;bytes&quot;:1896693,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wVrC!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fef723493-6079-4d7c-bee4-b89b9088bc3f_800x1347.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wVrC!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fef723493-6079-4d7c-bee4-b89b9088bc3f_800x1347.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wVrC!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fef723493-6079-4d7c-bee4-b89b9088bc3f_800x1347.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wVrC!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fef723493-6079-4d7c-bee4-b89b9088bc3f_800x1347.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">From a facsimile of the 14th century <em>Shinpukuji manuscript</em> of the <em>Kojiki</em>, 1924-1925</figcaption></figure></div><p>Let&#8217;s read <a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E6%AD%A6%E5%A4%A9%E7%9A%87">an account for an episode concerning </a><em><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E6%AD%A6%E5%A4%A9%E7%9A%87">Emperor Jimmu</a></em>, the legendary first emperor of Japan according to the <em>Kojiki. </em></p><blockquote><p><em>&#12381;&#12375;&#12390;&#40845;&#30000;&#12408;&#36914;&#36557;&#12377;&#12427;&#12364;&#36947;&#12364;&#38522;&#38459;&#12391;&#20808;&#12408;&#36914;&#12417;&#12394;&#12363;<strong>&#12387;&#12383;</strong>&#12290;&#12381;&#12371;&#12391;&#26481;&#12408;&#36557;&#12434;&#21521;&#12369;&#12390;&#32966;&#39378;&#23665;&#12434;&#32076;&#12390;&#20013;&#27954;&#65288;&#22823;&#21644;&#22269;&#65289;&#12408;&#20837;&#12429;&#12358;&#12392;&#12375;&#12289;&#12371;&#12398;&#22320;&#12434;&#25903;&#37197;&#12377;&#12427;&#38263;&#39620;&#24422;&#12392;&#23380;&#33294;&#34907;&#22338;&#12391;&#25126;<strong>&#12387;&#12383;</strong>&#12290; &#25126;&#12356;&#12395;&#21033;&#12394;&#12367;&#12289;&#38263;&#20804;&#12398;&#20116;&#28716;&#21629;&#12399;&#27969;&#12428;&#30690;&#12395;&#24403;&#12383;<strong>&#12387;</strong>&#12390;&#36000;&#20663;&#12375;<strong>&#12383;</strong>&#12290;&#12381;&#12375;&#12390;&#26085;&#12398;&#31070;&#12398;&#23376;&#23403;&#12398;&#33258;&#20998;&#36948;&#12364;&#26085;&#12395;&#21521;&#12363;&#12387;&#12390;&#65288;&#26481;&#12395;&#21521;&#12363;&#12387;&#12390;&#65289;&#25126;&#12358;&#12371;&#12392;&#12399;&#22825;&#12398;&#24847;&#24605;&#12395;&#36870;&#12425;&#12358;&#12371;&#12392;&#12384;&#12392;&#24735;&#12427;&#12371;&#12392;&#12392;&#12394;<strong>&#12387;&#12383;</strong>&#12290;&#24422;&#28779;&#28779;&#20986;&#35211;&#23562;&#12399;&#20853;&#12434;&#38598;&#12417;&#12390;&#33609;&#39321;&#27941;&#12414;&#12391;&#36864;&#12365;&#12289;&#20877;&#12403;&#28023;&#36335;&#21335;&#12408;&#12392;&#21521;&#12363;<strong>&#12387;&#12383;</strong>&#12290;</em></p></blockquote><p>Guided by our Germanist thoughts, we notice a strange pattern: (almost) all sentences finish with a similar syllable,<em>&#12387;&#12383; (-tta)</em>. A closer look further shows a certain recurrent vicinity of the symbols <em>&#12363; </em>and<em> &#12394;</em>, </p><blockquote><p><em>&#12381;&#12375;&#12390;&#40845;&#30000;&#12408;&#36914;&#36557;&#12377;&#12427;&#12364;&#36947;&#12364;&#38522;&#38459;&#12391;&#20808;&#12408;&#36914;&#12417;<strong>&#12394;&#12363;&#12387;&#12383;</strong>&#12290;&#12381;&#12371;&#12391;&#26481;&#12408;&#36557;&#12434;&#21521;&#12369;&#12390;&#32966;&#39378;&#23665;&#12434;&#32076;&#12390;&#20013;&#27954;&#65288;&#22823;&#21644;&#22269;&#65289;&#12408;&#20837;&#12429;&#12358;&#12392;&#12375;&#12289;&#12371;&#12398;&#22320;&#12434;&#25903;&#37197;&#12377;&#12427;&#38263;&#39620;&#24422;&#12392;&#23380;&#33294;&#34907;&#22338;&#12391;&#25126;<strong>&#12387;&#12383;</strong>&#12290; &#25126;&#12356;&#12395;&#21033;&#12394;&#12367;&#12289;&#38263;&#20804;&#12398;&#20116;&#28716;&#21629;&#12399;&#27969;&#12428;&#30690;&#12395;&#24403;&#12383;<strong>&#12387;</strong>&#12390;&#36000;&#20663;&#12375;<strong>&#12383;</strong>&#12290;&#12381;&#12375;&#12390;&#26085;&#12398;&#31070;&#12398;&#23376;&#23403;&#12398;&#33258;&#20998;&#36948;&#12364;&#26085;&#12395;&#21521;&#12363;&#12387;&#12390;&#65288;&#26481;&#12395;&#21521;&#12363;&#12387;&#12390;&#65289;&#25126;&#12358;&#12371;&#12392;&#12399;&#22825;&#12398;&#24847;&#24605;&#12395;&#36870;&#12425;&#12358;&#12371;&#12392;&#12384;&#12392;&#24735;&#12427;&#12371;&#12392;&#12392;<strong>&#12394;&#12387;&#12383;</strong>&#12290;&#24422;&#28779;&#28779;&#20986;&#35211;&#23562;&#12399;&#20853;&#12434;&#38598;&#12417;&#12390;&#33609;&#39321;&#27941;&#12414;&#12391;&#36864;&#12365;&#12289;&#20877;&#12403;&#28023;&#36335;&#21335;&#12408;&#12392;&#21521;<strong>&#12363;&#12387;&#12383;</strong>&#12290;</em></p></blockquote><p>Here is an electronic translation:</p><p><em>&#8220;When they advanced to Tatsuta, the road was too treacherous to proceed. They then turned the army east, passing through Mount Ikoma, attempting to enter Nakasu (Yamato Province), and fought with Nagasunehiko who controlled this area at Kosae slope. The battle was not favorable, and their eldest brother Gose no Mikoto was wounded by a stray arrow. They then realized that fighting while facing the sun (facing east) as descendants of the sun deity was against heaven's will. Hikohohodemi no Mikoto gathered his troops, retreated to Kusaka-tsu, and again headed south by sea.&#8221;</em></p><p>Let's decipher the sibylline </p><p><em>&#12381;&#12375;&#12390;&#40845;&#30000;&#12408;&#36914;&#36557;&#12377;&#12427;&#12364;&#36947;&#12364;&#38522;&#38459;&#12391;&#20808;&#12408;&#36914;&#12417;&#12394;&#12363;&#12387;&#12383;&#12290;</em> </p><p>by means of our ordinary approach to language learning. The piece translates into </p><p><em>When they advanced to Tatsuta, the road was too treacherous to proceed.</em></p><p>Asking semiconductors for a translation of<em> &#8220;they advanced to Tatsuta&#8221; </em>we are given <em>&#40845;&#30000;&#12408;&#36914;&#36557;&#12377;&#12427;</em>, which fits our passage perfectly.</p><p><em>&#12381;&#12375;&#12390;<strong>&#40845;&#30000;&#12408;&#36914;&#36557;&#12377;&#12427;</strong>&#12364;&#36947;&#12364;&#38522;&#38459;&#12391;&#20808;&#12408;&#36914;&#12417;&#12394;&#12363;&#12387;&#12383;&#12290;</em> </p><p>We don&#8217;t find here the recurrent<em>&#12387;&#12383; </em>that we might hope to be a <em>past</em> tense marker. The verb <em>&#36914;&#36557;&#12377;&#12427;</em> , we learn, is indeed a narrative <em>present</em> tense. Next, a proposed translation for <em>&#8220;the road was treacherous&#8221; </em>is &#36947;&#12364;&#38522;&#38459;&#12384;&#12387;&#12383; which we spot almost entirely in the original</p><p> <em>&#12381;&#12375;&#12390;&#40845;&#30000;&#12408;&#36914;&#36557;&#12377;&#12427;&#12364;<strong>&#36947;&#12364;&#38522;&#38459;</strong>&#12391;&#20808;&#12408;&#36914;&#12417;&#12394;&#12363;<strong>&#12387;&#12383;</strong>&#12290;</em> </p><p><em>&#36947;&#12364;&#38522;&#38459; </em>may be assume to match<em> &#8220;the road&#8230; treacherous&#8221; </em>while the verb asks for clarification. In your remnant <em>&#36914;&#12417;&#12394;&#12363;&#12387;&#12383;,</em> <em>&#12394; (na)</em> marks the negation, <em>&#36914;&#12417; </em>is the modal <em>can advance</em>, and the whole<em> &#12394;&#12363;&#12387;&#12383; (nakatta) </em>marks the negative past tense. In fact, the Japanese seems to literally say <em>*the road treacherous [&#8230;] could not advance </em>where something indicating causality is clearly missing: the role is filled by the conjunction<em>&#12391; (de)</em> which can be translated by<em> being:</em></p><p><em>&#8230;the road being treacherous, (they) could not advance</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CE0M!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F222ffe22-ecd1-4a46-b939-84c1ceac84a7_800x389.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CE0M!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F222ffe22-ecd1-4a46-b939-84c1ceac84a7_800x389.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CE0M!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F222ffe22-ecd1-4a46-b939-84c1ceac84a7_800x389.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CE0M!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F222ffe22-ecd1-4a46-b939-84c1ceac84a7_800x389.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CE0M!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F222ffe22-ecd1-4a46-b939-84c1ceac84a7_800x389.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CE0M!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F222ffe22-ecd1-4a46-b939-84c1ceac84a7_800x389.jpeg" width="800" height="389" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/222ffe22-ecd1-4a46-b939-84c1ceac84a7_800x389.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:389,&quot;width&quot;:800,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:140155,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CE0M!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F222ffe22-ecd1-4a46-b939-84c1ceac84a7_800x389.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CE0M!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F222ffe22-ecd1-4a46-b939-84c1ceac84a7_800x389.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CE0M!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F222ffe22-ecd1-4a46-b939-84c1ceac84a7_800x389.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CE0M!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F222ffe22-ecd1-4a46-b939-84c1ceac84a7_800x389.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>Emperor Jinmu's Enthronement</em>, triptych woodblock print by Hasegawa Sadanobu I, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 1868</figcaption></figure></div><p>Incidentally, we have illustrated once more how a parallel inspection, driven by curiosity, of new language and English makes the opaque clearer. We claim this the most fruitful and funniest way to learn new languages generally. </p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>Upset by Germanist ideas, we have been struck so far by a strange coincidence: that of dental suffixes for past tense formation in <em>Hungarian</em>, <em>Turkish</em>, and <em>Japanese</em>. <a href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/old-norse-weak-verbs-and-dental-suffix">As mentioned earlier</a>, a dental suffix runs through the Germanic spectrum in the formation of the past tense of weak verbs, and the pattern is assumed, by Ringe (2017) in particular, to be a Proto-Germanic legacy. (<a href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/weak-verbs-strong-verbs">Here, we were looking</a> at how the Proto-Germanic weak verb classes identified by Ringe prolong into Old Norse.) Proto-Germanic is assumed to have formed its past indicative and subjunctive with a <em>*-d-</em> (perhaps a <em>*-d&#275;d-</em>) suffix. Its past indicative would have followed the following pattern:</p><p><em>Past tense indicative suffix-ending(s)&#9;&#9;</em></p><p><em>Sg&#9;-<strong>d</strong>-&#493;&#9;&#9;<br>        -<strong>d</strong>-&#275;z&#9;&#9;<br>        -<strong>d</strong>-&#275;&#9;&#9;</em></p><p><em>Pl&#9;-<strong>d</strong>-&#363;&#9;&#9;<br>        -<strong>d</strong>-u-diz&#9;&#9;<br>        -<strong>d</strong>-u-m, -<strong>d</strong>-u-d, -<strong>d</strong>-u-n</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share Old Norse Linguist&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share"><span>Share Old Norse Linguist</span></a></p><p>We shall soon come back to this Proto-Germanic phenomenon and the efforts that have been made to shed light on its origins. But for now, let's focus on our coincidence. Apart from a certain dental suffix in the formation of the past tense, <em>Hungarian</em>, <em>Turkish</em> and <em>Japanese</em> have in common that they share no Indo-European genealogy. Consensus places <em>Hungarian</em> in the Ugric branch of a <em>Uralic family</em> and derives it from a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugric_languages">Proto-Ugric</a> spoken <em>&#8220;from the end of the 3rd millennium BC until the first half of the 1st millennium BC, in Western Siberia, east of the southern Ural Mountains&#8221;</em>. <em>Turkic languages </em>on the other hand <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkic_languages#Pre-history">are thought to have derived from</a> some Proto-Turkic that would have emerged between the Transcaspian steppe and Manchuria around 2500 BC. The so-called <em>Japonic</em> <em>languages</em> encompass Japanese and the indigenous languages of the Ryukyu Islands, that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language#Prehistory">are assumed to have originated from</a> a Proto-Japonic brought to the archipelago in the early 4th century BC by settlers stemming from the Korean peninsula. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RH4t!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ab68130-ffd7-43fb-8ce1-37e9b61262a4_1591x854.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RH4t!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ab68130-ffd7-43fb-8ce1-37e9b61262a4_1591x854.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RH4t!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ab68130-ffd7-43fb-8ce1-37e9b61262a4_1591x854.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RH4t!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ab68130-ffd7-43fb-8ce1-37e9b61262a4_1591x854.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RH4t!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ab68130-ffd7-43fb-8ce1-37e9b61262a4_1591x854.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RH4t!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ab68130-ffd7-43fb-8ce1-37e9b61262a4_1591x854.png" width="1456" height="782" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/5ab68130-ffd7-43fb-8ce1-37e9b61262a4_1591x854.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:782,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:1746309,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RH4t!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ab68130-ffd7-43fb-8ce1-37e9b61262a4_1591x854.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RH4t!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ab68130-ffd7-43fb-8ce1-37e9b61262a4_1591x854.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RH4t!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ab68130-ffd7-43fb-8ce1-37e9b61262a4_1591x854.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RH4t!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ab68130-ffd7-43fb-8ce1-37e9b61262a4_1591x854.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Detail from Hayashi Shihei, map of the Ryukyu Kingdom and Thirty-Six Islands during the Tokugawa period, 1785</figcaption></figure></div><p>Nevertheless, the history of linguistics abounds in hypotheses and controversies around a potential kinship between these three language families, with a recent resurgence of interest fueled by the unprecedented computational possibilities of modern times. By the late seventeenth century already, the outlines of an <em>Altaic</em> <em>family</em> were being discerned, grouping together <em>Turkic</em>, <em>Mongolic</em> and <em>Tungusic</em>. The 18th century proposed that it be rallied by <em>Uralic languages</em> on the one hand, and <em>Japanese</em> and <em>Korean</em> on the other. Let's first consider Japanese language specialist Alexander Vovin's arguments against the latter hypothesis, as he shifted from advocating to criticizing it. In short, he denounces the lack of sufficient evidence, and charges vehemently (Vovin, 2009) certain recent scholarly works whose attempts at proof he finds fundamentally flawed. Here we are at the very core of the dispute: what proof is necessary and sufficient to demonstrate an indisputable kinship between two (families of) languages? According to Vovin (2011, p.6; emphasis added):</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8230; the demonstration of a </em>[genealogical]<em> relationship is only possible by either showing the </em>existence of common paradigmatic morphology<em>, and/or by demonstrating the </em>existence of regular phonetic correspondences within the basic vocabular<em>y.</em></p></blockquote><p>Regular morphological correspondences between two words (from different languages) being compared are not enough : such correspondences must also not be due to borrowing; be <em>&#8220;predictive-productive&#8221;,</em> i.e. be systematic and extend to inflection and overall word formation based on active (productive) rules (thereby predictive of new word formation); leave no unaccounted segment; come with semantic correspondence, supported not by bare word-lists but philological evidence, corpus occurrences, and cultural context. As such restrictions demand hard work, it is easy to be lulled by similarities that are mere borrowings or happenstance; and hasty judgment could justify nearly any adoption by the Altaic family. If we were to follow Robbeets' reasoning in its ultimate consequences, Vovin scorns, we would add Russian: Robbeets claims a Proto-Altaic denominal verbal (i.e. formative of verbs from substantives) suffix <em>*-la-</em> on the basis of a Proto-Japonic <em>*-ra-</em> yielding Old-Japonic <em>-r-</em>, Turkic <em>*-lA-</em>, Mongolic <em>*-lA-</em>, and Tungusic <em>*-lA-.</em> Vovin further notes the similarity between Russian <em>kamla- &#8220;to shamanize&#8221;</em> and Turkic <em>qam-la- &#8220;to shamanize&#8221;</em> derived from <em>qam &#8220;shaman&#8221;. </em>Those verbs form their respective past as follows</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZaQE!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b3e0f66-a2da-4065-983a-522403f3cc33_304x309.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZaQE!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b3e0f66-a2da-4065-983a-522403f3cc33_304x309.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZaQE!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b3e0f66-a2da-4065-983a-522403f3cc33_304x309.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZaQE!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b3e0f66-a2da-4065-983a-522403f3cc33_304x309.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZaQE!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b3e0f66-a2da-4065-983a-522403f3cc33_304x309.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZaQE!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b3e0f66-a2da-4065-983a-522403f3cc33_304x309.png" width="304" height="309" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/1b3e0f66-a2da-4065-983a-522403f3cc33_304x309.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:309,&quot;width&quot;:304,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:25841,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZaQE!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b3e0f66-a2da-4065-983a-522403f3cc33_304x309.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZaQE!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b3e0f66-a2da-4065-983a-522403f3cc33_304x309.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZaQE!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b3e0f66-a2da-4065-983a-522403f3cc33_304x309.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZaQE!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b3e0f66-a2da-4065-983a-522403f3cc33_304x309.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>and Vovin (2011, p.1-2) concludes  </p><blockquote><p><em>&#8230; stems are identical but the paradigms are not: derivational verbal morphology is easily borrowed, but inflectional is not.</em></p></blockquote><p>In short, a conclusive resemblance must extend to inflection. The borrowing (rather than the inheritance) of a derivation rule is further betrayed by its loose systematism. Mongolian has <em>bo&#947;orla- &#8220;cut the throat&#8221;</em> visibly corresponding to Old Turkic <em>bo&#947;uz-la- </em>with same meaning<em> </em>derived<em> </em>from <em>bo&#947;az~ bo&#947;uz &#8220;throat&#8221;</em>; Mongolian <em>&#246;g&#252;tle- &#8220;advise&#8221; </em>to Old Turkic <em>&#246;g&#252;t-le- &#8220;advise&#8221;</em> from<em> &#246;g&#252;t &#8220;advice&#8221;</em>; or Mongolian <em>&#269;i&#331;la- ~ &#269;i&#331;na-</em> <em>&#8220;listen&#8221;</em> to Old Turkic <em>t&#239;&#331;-la- &#8220;listen&#8221; </em>from<em> t&#239;&#331; &#8220;listening&#8221;</em>. Yet, Vovin tells us, there are no Mongolic root words meaning <em>throat</em>, <em>advice</em>, or <em>listening</em> which <em>bo&#947;orla-, </em> <em>&#246;g&#252;tle- </em>or <em>&#269;i&#331;la- </em>could be derived from by appending a suffix <em>-la</em>: these verbs were borrowed, and only later did the rule become productive in Mongolian, with, for example, <em>&#252;ge-le-</em> <em>&#8220;to say&#8221; </em>from <em>&#252;ge</em> <em>&#8220;word&#8221;, </em>as the <em>-la/-le</em> suffix was eventually <em>&#8220;segmented and began to be used after pure Mongolian nominal roots&#8221;.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QZj5!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8893f18c-5448-4dd9-bca6-c9d2234b6d35_848x696.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QZj5!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8893f18c-5448-4dd9-bca6-c9d2234b6d35_848x696.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QZj5!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8893f18c-5448-4dd9-bca6-c9d2234b6d35_848x696.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QZj5!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8893f18c-5448-4dd9-bca6-c9d2234b6d35_848x696.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QZj5!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8893f18c-5448-4dd9-bca6-c9d2234b6d35_848x696.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QZj5!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8893f18c-5448-4dd9-bca6-c9d2234b6d35_848x696.png" width="592" height="485.8867924528302" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/8893f18c-5448-4dd9-bca6-c9d2234b6d35_848x696.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:696,&quot;width&quot;:848,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:592,&quot;bytes&quot;:1235127,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QZj5!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8893f18c-5448-4dd9-bca6-c9d2234b6d35_848x696.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QZj5!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8893f18c-5448-4dd9-bca6-c9d2234b6d35_848x696.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QZj5!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8893f18c-5448-4dd9-bca6-c9d2234b6d35_848x696.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QZj5!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8893f18c-5448-4dd9-bca6-c9d2234b6d35_848x696.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Detail from Motonobu Aobus, <em>Atlas of the Japanese Empire</em>, Nagoya, 1828, Biblioth&#232;que nationale de France</figcaption></figure></div><p>Establishing a language family is an ambitious task, as it faces nearly impossible criteria. For Giorgio Orlandi (2020, p.43), another detractor of an Altaic Japanese, <em>&#8220;one of the universal criteria for demonstrating the integrity of a language family&#8221;</em>, captured in one formula, is <em>&#8220;confidentially eliminating chance, borrowing, and other non-genetic factors&#8221;</em>. We near tautology: to demonstrate that a resemblance attests to kinship, one must eliminate the possibility of all alternative explanatory factors, all of which are, by definition, non-genetic. Later, Orlandi (2020, p.52) specifies: two languages are genetically related if the ancestor language, the protolanguage from which both derive, is<em> &#8220;recoverable only by means of specific linguistic techniques which seek to reconstruct [the] rules and restructurings"</em> that mold their respective evolution after the branching off. These techniques are mainly internal and external reconstruction. Internal reconstruction compares, internally to one language, <em>&#8220;allomorphs in order to arrive at a reconstructed invariant form of a morpheme&#8221;</em> while external reconstruction, the <em>&#8220;comparative method&#8221;, </em>seeks to reconstruct the ancestor from word matching across languages. Published in 2003, the <em>Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages</em> (Statosin et all.), <em>&#8220;a huge work in three volumes, containing 2,800 etymologies&#8221;</em> is thus regarded by its authors as the definitive end of the debate:<em>&#8220;the very fact that it is possible to compile a dictionary of common Altaic heritage</em>, they say,<em> appears to be a proof of the validity of the Altaic theory&#8221;</em>.  Yet Orlandi warns: reconstruction can easily lapse into <em>&#8220;teleological exercise&#8221;</em> or a <em>&#8220;speculative etymological construct&#8221;</em>. It is particularly Statosin's phonetic reconstruction that Orlandi seem to dislike. The sound laws governing the derivation of the daughter languages must be both <em>typologically plausible</em> and consistent with the principles of <em>naturalness</em> - established pattern of language evolution are observed - and <em>minimality</em> - each sound change affects only one phonetic feature at a time. And Orlandi concludes: Statosin's reconstruction is not sufficient, but neither is reconstruction necessary. </p><blockquote><p><em>While the Trans-Himalayan family is widely accepted (Greenberg 1996: 134, LaPolla 2001: 225), a complete reconstruction of Proto-Trans-Himalayan is still unavailable at the moment. This proves that the &#8220;reconstruction&#8221; of a Proto-language does not imply the validity of that language family, and vice versa.</em></p></blockquote><p>It seems that Altaists weave by day the demonstration that anti-Altaists unweave by night: like Penelope's knitwear, the scholarly talk can go on for a long time. </p><div><hr></div><p>We understand that an unsettling similarity between two languages of humanity can be due to <em>heritage</em>, <em>borrowing</em> or <em>chance</em> - and that proof can be epic. But are we sure that nothing is missing from the picture? Some interlanguage similarities come to our minds, which none of the three above-mentioned factors primarily explains: <em><a href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/future-and-movement-i">pathways of grammaticalization</a></em>. Gradually, usage transmutes, via abstraction, a lexical element into a grammatical one, a content-word into a function-word. Thus, numerous <a href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/future-and-movement-2">markers of future tense</a> across languages derive, along recurrent morphological, semantic and phonetic paths, from verbs of <em>movement</em> or <em>intention</em>. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!y6gh!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3e0f66c4-aef9-4120-bcd6-20e22912dbd2_800x1276.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!y6gh!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3e0f66c4-aef9-4120-bcd6-20e22912dbd2_800x1276.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!y6gh!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3e0f66c4-aef9-4120-bcd6-20e22912dbd2_800x1276.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!y6gh!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3e0f66c4-aef9-4120-bcd6-20e22912dbd2_800x1276.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!y6gh!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3e0f66c4-aef9-4120-bcd6-20e22912dbd2_800x1276.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!y6gh!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3e0f66c4-aef9-4120-bcd6-20e22912dbd2_800x1276.jpeg" width="488" height="778.36" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/3e0f66c4-aef9-4120-bcd6-20e22912dbd2_800x1276.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1276,&quot;width&quot;:800,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:488,&quot;bytes&quot;:449829,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!y6gh!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3e0f66c4-aef9-4120-bcd6-20e22912dbd2_800x1276.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!y6gh!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3e0f66c4-aef9-4120-bcd6-20e22912dbd2_800x1276.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!y6gh!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3e0f66c4-aef9-4120-bcd6-20e22912dbd2_800x1276.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!y6gh!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3e0f66c4-aef9-4120-bcd6-20e22912dbd2_800x1276.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Murad II and the imaginary beheading of W&#322;adys&#322;aw III of Poland, 1523, Topkap&#305; Palace, Istanbul</figcaption></figure></div><p>Heine and Kuteva (2002) catalogue a host of such semantic source-target associations: too much coincidence to invoke luck, while anachronistic universality defies both borrowing from contact and heredity. As we have seen, grammaticalization arises from communication needs. The paths of species evolution require the increasingly effective expression of increasingly abstract notions, which find their way by metaphor from the concrete: the time of movement projects into the future, so that progressive usage fixes the English <em>&#8220;is going to&#8221;</em>, the Dutch <em>&#8220;gaan&#8221;</em>, the Swedish <em>&#8220;komma att&#8221;</em> as future tense auxiliaries. The constants of the grammaticalization phenomenon and its modalities - source-target pairs, morphological, phonetic and semantic paths - thus respond to species modalities of cognition and communication, and to their evolutionary trajectories sculpted by interdependent biology and culture. Among these cognitive universals, we also find the hypothetical <em>&#8220;universal grammar&#8221;</em>, an innate propensity for language and an innate notion of its functional categories. According to a <em>Strong Minimal Hypothesis</em>, what makes human language unique is the hierarchical structure of its syntax: the emergence of its <em>merge function</em>, together with the cognitive and sensory-motor capacities underpinning thought and expression, propel our species on its distinctive trajectory. (It makes it possible to assemble <em>the</em> and <em>apple</em> in the set <em>{the, apples}</em>, which further combines to <em>ate</em> in <em>{ate,{the, apples}}</em>, etc.) <em>How Could Language Have Evolved?</em> (Bolhuis, Tattersall, Chomsky &amp; Berwick, 2014), where interests from neurobiology, anthropology and linguistics converge, seem to call on future science to clarify the potential genomics of such merge function.</p><blockquote><p><em>With merge [&#8230;] the basic properties of human language emerge. Evolutionary analysis can thus be focused on this quite narrowly defined phenotypic property, merge itself, as the chief bridge between the ancestral and modern states for language. Since this change is relatively minor, it accords with what we know about the apparent rapidity of language&#8217;s emergence.</em></p></blockquote><p>Although its malfunctions <em>&#8220;produce speech deficits in modern people&#8221;</em>, the gene FOXP2, the authors recall or deplore, can no longer be <em>&#8220;regarded as &#8220;the&#8221; gene &#8220;for&#8221; language&#8221; </em>as many others intermingle in<em> &#8220;its normal expression&#8221;</em>. The desire is palpable to find its theoretical replacement, a gene of the decisive <em>merge function</em>. Eventually, beyond the brain, another obvious biological universal is that of the vocal tract, which conditions the phonological possibilities and drifts of languages. </p><p>In short, it is not surprising that languages resemble each other: they are human. Perhaps there is a biology of past tense formation, a genetics of the past tense forming dental suffixes that at least four very different kind of languages seem to feature. Let's sketch out two ideas for pursuing our investigation. We have taken a close look at the <a href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/future-and-movement-i">grammaticalization of future markers</a>: our suffix could be a result of that of past expression. One of the constant processes of grammaticalization, as we have seen, is semantic, morphosyntactic, and phonetic coalescence, which the African dialects of <em>!Xun</em> illustrate well at work: the Proto-!Xun (reconstructed) verbs of motion <em><strong>*g&#448;&#232; </strong>(come) </em>and <em><strong>*&#250;</strong></em> (<em>go</em>) merge with the conjunctions <em><strong>*k&#224;</strong></em> and <em><strong>*t&#224;</strong></em> or the transitive suffix<em><strong> *-&#257;</strong></em> to produce future tense markers, for instance in <em><strong>&#242;-t&#257;&#449;&#233;</strong></em> <em>(will die) </em>and <em><strong>oga g&#448;yee</strong> (will come)</em>  that respectively derive from<em> <strong>*&#250; t&#257; &#449;&#233;</strong></em> <em>(go and die)</em> and <em><strong>*&#250; k&#257; g&#448;&#232;</strong></em> (<em>go and come). </em></p><p>Let's imagine our dental past tense markers originating from the same slow coalescence and abstraction from <em>some kind of </em>lexical items with concrete meaning. Their phonetic similarity across languages could then result from that of their source words. What could justify interlanguage congruence of sounds and meaning? Well, here also, theories and literature abound. Modern <em>&#8220;sound symbolism&#8221;</em> and its sophisticated laboratory experiments continue to enliven the didactic disputes of <em>Plato's Cratylus.</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share Old Norse Linguist&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share"><span>Share Old Norse Linguist</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p><em>References</em></p><p>Ger&#233;b, L. (Trans.). (1993).<em> K&#233;pes Kr&#243;nika: A magyarok r&#233;gi &#233;s leg&#250;jabb tetteir&#337;l, eredet&#252;kr&#337;l &#233;s n&#246;veked&#233;s&#252;kr&#337;l, diadalaikr&#243;l &#233;s b&#225;tors&#225;gukr&#243;l. (T. Tarj&#225;n, Ed.). Magyar H&#237;rlap &#233;s Maecenas Kiad&#243;.</em></p><p>Ringe, D. (2017).<em> From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.</em></p><p>Vovin, A. (2009).<em> Japanese, Korean, and Other 'Non-Altaic' Languages. Central Asiatic Journal, 53(1), 105-147.</em></p><p>Vovin, A. (2011). <em>Why Japonic is not demonstrably related to 'Altaic' or Korean. Paper presented at the 20th International Conference on Historical Linguistics (ICHL XX), Osaka, Japan, July 30, 2011.</em></p><p>Heine, B., &amp; Kuteva, T. (2002). <em>World Lexicon of Grammaticalization</em>. Cambridge University Press.</p><p>Bolhuis, J. J., Tattersall, I., Chomsky, N., &amp; Berwick, R. C. (2014).<em> How Could Language Have Evolved? </em>PLOS Biology, 12(8), e1001934<a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001934">3</a><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25157536/">4</a>.</p><p></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Future and movement (2)]]></title><description><![CDATA[Of the future tense its and entry into grammar]]></description><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/future-and-movement-2</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/future-and-movement-2</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Galois]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 30 Jan 2025 10:11:27 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g3Tg!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F678a06ad-c896-4216-8509-e9cf2d774aae_1252x1536.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Language is in motion: each new statement, written or spoken, confirms, extends or ruptures existing forms. If the dissonance is too marked, there is a fault of taste or grammar. If the contravention is acceptable, there is innovation, the option of a new way of saying, which usage may or may not endorse. In particular, abstract notions seek expression. Speakers experiment with the concrete language that the present makes available to them: they try to evoke the abstract <em>metaphorically</em>. Eventually, expressions formalize, and enter grammar.  </p><p>Theorists call <em>grammaticalization</em> the linguistic process that gradually metamorphoses lexical items into grammatical ones. <a href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/future-and-movement-i">We have recently</a>, by way of illustration, visited modal verbs from Old to Modern English, and evoked the frequent intermingling of the expression of tense and modality. The future tense auxiliary <em>will</em>, in particular, bears also modal nuances. It has been grammaticalized as a future tense marker by analogy with its predecessor's lexical meaning - <em>intention</em> and <em>willingness</em>. </p><p>Another typical pathway in the grammaticalization of the future tense originates from verbs of <em>movement</em>. This is what we shall be looking at more closely - in the present essay, we will evoke the phenomenon across several languages, especially of the Germanic spectrum. </p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>Reconstructing a <em>Proto-!Xun</em>, a hypothetical ancestor of the <em><strong>!Xun</strong></em> language spoken by hunter-gatherers in south-west Africa, no trace of <em>&#8220;a conventionalized future tense form or construction&#8221;</em> can be found, Heine and his co-authors tell us. (Heine, Kuteva &amp; Narrog, 2017, p.4-9) In contrast, Proto-!Xun seems to have featured the verbs of motion <em><strong>*&#250;</strong></em> (<em>go</em>) and <em><strong>*g&#448;&#232;</strong></em> (<em>come</em>), whose descendants participate to the formation of the future tense in today's !Xun dialects. Most probably, Heine concludes, these verbs preexisted the grammatical markers of the future tense in the history of the !Xun, and the latter derived from the former: <em>&#8220;movement-based future tenses&#8221;</em> developed. The following is a repertoire of !Xun dialects and their future tense markers. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!j795!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3b0f1ef-fc1e-4089-9847-a2ad86a40b4a_464x355.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!j795!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3b0f1ef-fc1e-4089-9847-a2ad86a40b4a_464x355.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!j795!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3b0f1ef-fc1e-4089-9847-a2ad86a40b4a_464x355.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!j795!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3b0f1ef-fc1e-4089-9847-a2ad86a40b4a_464x355.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!j795!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3b0f1ef-fc1e-4089-9847-a2ad86a40b4a_464x355.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!j795!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3b0f1ef-fc1e-4089-9847-a2ad86a40b4a_464x355.png" width="464" height="355" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d3b0f1ef-fc1e-4089-9847-a2ad86a40b4a_464x355.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:355,&quot;width&quot;:464,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:22443,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!j795!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3b0f1ef-fc1e-4089-9847-a2ad86a40b4a_464x355.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!j795!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3b0f1ef-fc1e-4089-9847-a2ad86a40b4a_464x355.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!j795!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3b0f1ef-fc1e-4089-9847-a2ad86a40b4a_464x355.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!j795!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3b0f1ef-fc1e-4089-9847-a2ad86a40b4a_464x355.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p> W1 and E3 clearly developed their markers from the Proto-!Xun <em><strong>*g&#448;&#232; </strong>(come). </em>N1, N2, C1, E2, perhaps W2 and W3, from <em><strong>*&#250;</strong></em> (<em>go</em>). We also find the conjunctions <em><strong>t&#257;</strong> </em>and <em><strong>oga</strong></em>, which will soon prove pivotal in the discussion. In addition, the !Xun dialects can draw on three types of constructions to form the future tense. These differ in the type of association between the two verbs - auxiliary and lexical - that they involve. A closer look at these three types of construction reveals much about the ongoing process of grammaticalization, from verbs of movement to future tense markers. We find indeed </p><ol><li><p>A <em>complement-based future</em> where the suffix <em><strong>-&#225; </strong></em>serves to augment the valency of the verb, that is, its aptitude to take on a complement, e.g. turning an intransitive verb into a transitive one. Here is an example from the N1 dialect, with Heine&#8217;s encoding. (T refers to preposition/suffix, FUT to future marker, TOP to topic marker)</p></li></ol><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!guGn!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F848b8cbd-9226-4d44-9bc3-bee3f38ce2a0_214x99.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!guGn!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F848b8cbd-9226-4d44-9bc3-bee3f38ce2a0_214x99.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!guGn!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F848b8cbd-9226-4d44-9bc3-bee3f38ce2a0_214x99.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!guGn!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F848b8cbd-9226-4d44-9bc3-bee3f38ce2a0_214x99.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!guGn!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F848b8cbd-9226-4d44-9bc3-bee3f38ce2a0_214x99.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!guGn!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F848b8cbd-9226-4d44-9bc3-bee3f38ce2a0_214x99.png" width="214" height="99" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/848b8cbd-9226-4d44-9bc3-bee3f38ce2a0_214x99.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:99,&quot;width&quot;:214,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:7057,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!guGn!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F848b8cbd-9226-4d44-9bc3-bee3f38ce2a0_214x99.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!guGn!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F848b8cbd-9226-4d44-9bc3-bee3f38ce2a0_214x99.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!guGn!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F848b8cbd-9226-4d44-9bc3-bee3f38ce2a0_214x99.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!guGn!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F848b8cbd-9226-4d44-9bc3-bee3f38ce2a0_214x99.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div></div></div></a></figure></div><ol start="2"><li><p>A <em>serializing</em> future that juxtaposes both verbs, here in the E2 dialect</p></li></ol><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cobq!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F57f89cfb-66b9-45a1-826e-7c0c7d7cc56e_230x96.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cobq!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F57f89cfb-66b9-45a1-826e-7c0c7d7cc56e_230x96.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cobq!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F57f89cfb-66b9-45a1-826e-7c0c7d7cc56e_230x96.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cobq!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F57f89cfb-66b9-45a1-826e-7c0c7d7cc56e_230x96.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cobq!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F57f89cfb-66b9-45a1-826e-7c0c7d7cc56e_230x96.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cobq!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F57f89cfb-66b9-45a1-826e-7c0c7d7cc56e_230x96.png" width="230" height="96" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/57f89cfb-66b9-45a1-826e-7c0c7d7cc56e_230x96.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:96,&quot;width&quot;:230,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:8459,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cobq!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F57f89cfb-66b9-45a1-826e-7c0c7d7cc56e_230x96.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cobq!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F57f89cfb-66b9-45a1-826e-7c0c7d7cc56e_230x96.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cobq!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F57f89cfb-66b9-45a1-826e-7c0c7d7cc56e_230x96.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cobq!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F57f89cfb-66b9-45a1-826e-7c0c7d7cc56e_230x96.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div></div></div></a></figure></div><ol start="3"><li><p>A <em>particle-based future</em> where future markers bear resemblance with but differ from <em><strong>g&#448;&#232; </strong>/ <strong>&#250;</strong></em>. Namely we can find <em>oga</em>, <em>&#242;-t&#257;</em>,<em> &#243;&#225;</em>, forms that are undergoing phonetic, syntactic, morphological coalescence. In the following W2 example</p></li></ol><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Lpf!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9848661f-a7da-4d7c-b618-c5ad231480c5_202x114.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Lpf!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9848661f-a7da-4d7c-b618-c5ad231480c5_202x114.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Lpf!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9848661f-a7da-4d7c-b618-c5ad231480c5_202x114.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Lpf!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9848661f-a7da-4d7c-b618-c5ad231480c5_202x114.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Lpf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9848661f-a7da-4d7c-b618-c5ad231480c5_202x114.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Lpf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9848661f-a7da-4d7c-b618-c5ad231480c5_202x114.png" width="202" height="114" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9848661f-a7da-4d7c-b618-c5ad231480c5_202x114.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:114,&quot;width&quot;:202,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:6872,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Lpf!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9848661f-a7da-4d7c-b618-c5ad231480c5_202x114.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Lpf!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9848661f-a7da-4d7c-b618-c5ad231480c5_202x114.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Lpf!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9848661f-a7da-4d7c-b618-c5ad231480c5_202x114.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Lpf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9848661f-a7da-4d7c-b618-c5ad231480c5_202x114.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>the future marker <em>&#243;&#225;</em> results (most probably, Heine says) from <em>*&#250;-&#257; &gt; *&#243;-&#225; &gt; &#243;&#225; </em>where <em>-&#225; </em>is the above (1) complement-friendly suffix<em>. </em>Similarly,<em> &#242;-t&#257; </em>and<em> oga </em>can certainly be reconstructed back to a coalescence of <em>*&#250; </em>with the conjunctions<em> t&#224; </em>and<em> k&#224; </em>respectively.<em> </em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g3Tg!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F678a06ad-c896-4216-8509-e9cf2d774aae_1252x1536.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g3Tg!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F678a06ad-c896-4216-8509-e9cf2d774aae_1252x1536.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g3Tg!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F678a06ad-c896-4216-8509-e9cf2d774aae_1252x1536.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g3Tg!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F678a06ad-c896-4216-8509-e9cf2d774aae_1252x1536.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g3Tg!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F678a06ad-c896-4216-8509-e9cf2d774aae_1252x1536.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g3Tg!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F678a06ad-c896-4216-8509-e9cf2d774aae_1252x1536.jpeg" width="494" height="606.0575079872204" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/678a06ad-c896-4216-8509-e9cf2d774aae_1252x1536.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1536,&quot;width&quot;:1252,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:494,&quot;bytes&quot;:164551,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g3Tg!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F678a06ad-c896-4216-8509-e9cf2d774aae_1252x1536.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g3Tg!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F678a06ad-c896-4216-8509-e9cf2d774aae_1252x1536.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g3Tg!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F678a06ad-c896-4216-8509-e9cf2d774aae_1252x1536.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g3Tg!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F678a06ad-c896-4216-8509-e9cf2d774aae_1252x1536.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Asante. Fertility Doll (Akuaba), 20th century. Brooklyn Museum, Caroline A.L. Pratt Fund, 68.222. Creative Commons-BY (Photo: Brooklyn Museum)</figcaption></figure></div><p>Here comes the most interesting part. Our suffix <em>-&#225;</em> and conjunctions <em>t&#224;/k&#224;</em> are not limited to forming the future tense. <em>-&#225; </em>adapts, in general, a verb to take on a complement. This can be a verb in the past tense (past tense marked by <em>k&#232;</em>), as in (W2)</p><p><em>h&#513; m&#225; k&#232; <strong>&#250;- &#225;</strong> &#7743;. (He went to eat.) </em></p><p>Likewise, <em>t&#224; </em>and <em>k&#224; </em>serve coordination in general, as in (W2)</p><p><em>h&#513; m&#225; k&#232; <strong>&#250; k&#257;</strong> m&#779;. (He went and ate.)</em></p><p>Consequently, we can assume future tense constructions to still be semantically colored by their lexical counterparts, coexisting in the dialects. For instance, considering (N1)</p><p><em>m&#772; tx&#242;m, &#224; <strong>&#242;-t&#257;</strong> &#449;&#233; (My uncle, you are going to die)</em></p><p>the grammatical (future tense) marker <em><strong>&#242;-t&#257; </strong>&#449;&#233; (are going to die)<strong> </strong></em>is <em>in the process of </em>getting abstracted from a lexical (literal) <em><strong>&#250; t&#257; </strong>&#449;&#233; (go and die)</em>. Perhaps a little of the literal <em>&#8220;go and die&#8221;</em> remains in the abstract, future expressing <em>&#8220;will die&#8221;</em>. It is nevertheless difficult to assess the degree of <em>semantic bleaching</em>. It might be assumed to be proportionate to the coalescence degree, <em><strong>&#242;-t&#257;</strong></em> being closer to (and thereby potentially more evocative of) the literal form <em><strong>&#250; t&#257;</strong></em> it derives from than <em><strong>oga</strong></em> is to its putative parent <em><strong>&#250; k&#257;.</strong></em> (In other words, the latter can be deemed more coalesced than the former, thereby giving less away of its origins.) Yet, isn't present-day English completely insensitive to the literal motion meaning when using <em>be going to</em> as a future marker - while the motion verb (<em>going</em>) is perfectly visible, with no erosion or truncation?</p><p>Ultimately, we observe a certain disparity in the morphosyntactic paths followed in the different dialects of !Xun by the development of the grammatical future, and (perhaps) in the degree of its advancement; we can also observe a unanimous convergence of the semantic path: it is systematically a primitive <em>verb of motion</em>, <strong>*</strong><em><strong>&#250;</strong></em> or <em><strong>*g&#448;&#232;</strong></em>, from which the expression of the future, whatever its form and syntax, derives. Since the youngest (reconstructed) common ancestor has no future marker, this latter similarity cannot be inherited. Heine then formulates the hypothesis of a <em>great tendency</em>, whereby the semantic shift precedes and drives the morphological/syntactic transition -<em>&#8220;structural change lags behind semantic change.&#8221;</em> (Heine, Kuteva &amp; Narrog, 2017, p.23)</p><p>Heine is a specialist in African languages, and the comparative study of their respective dialects is extremely instructive. As it were, dialects synchronize diachrony, bearing witness at the present time to several stages in a similar ongoing process. </p><blockquote><p><em>Many synchronic differences between dialects can in fact be interpreted as reflecting differing stages or ways of grammaticalization.</em> (Heine &amp; Reh, 1984, p.91)</p></blockquote><p>However, a certain degree of their interdependence cannot be excluded. As well as reciprocal influences through language contact, <em>something</em> - features or tendencies at work - inherent in the inherited linguistic system could explain the similarity of grammaticalization processes originating after divergence from the shared ancestor. (Heine concedes the hypothesis of an inherited shared <em>drift</em> while the process referred to remains nebulous.) </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KslL!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b996949-3bad-4f0a-b8b4-f52d74f19485_473x599.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KslL!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b996949-3bad-4f0a-b8b4-f52d74f19485_473x599.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KslL!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b996949-3bad-4f0a-b8b4-f52d74f19485_473x599.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KslL!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b996949-3bad-4f0a-b8b4-f52d74f19485_473x599.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KslL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b996949-3bad-4f0a-b8b4-f52d74f19485_473x599.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KslL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b996949-3bad-4f0a-b8b4-f52d74f19485_473x599.jpeg" width="473" height="599" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/2b996949-3bad-4f0a-b8b4-f52d74f19485_473x599.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:599,&quot;width&quot;:473,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:12049,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KslL!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b996949-3bad-4f0a-b8b4-f52d74f19485_473x599.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KslL!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b996949-3bad-4f0a-b8b4-f52d74f19485_473x599.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KslL!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b996949-3bad-4f0a-b8b4-f52d74f19485_473x599.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KslL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b996949-3bad-4f0a-b8b4-f52d74f19485_473x599.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"> Fante. Fertility Doll (Akuaba), late 19th or early 20th century. Brooklyn Museum, Gift of Merton D. Simpson to the Jennie Simpson Educational Collection of African Art, 69.133.2. Creative Commons-BY (Photo: Brooklyn Museum)</figcaption></figure></div><p>Here, cross-language studies substantiate the demonstration. Staying in Africa, <em>verbs of motion </em>(together with <em>verbs of</em> <em>volition</em>, we remember the English modal auxiliary <em>will</em>) are the most frequent sources of future markers. </p><ul><li><p>The <em>Nilotic</em> dialects <em>Acholi</em> and <em>Lango</em> resort to a periphrastic construction where <em>bino</em> (<em>to</em> <em>come</em>) is followed by a verbal infinitive form. </p></li></ul><p>Here again, the dialectal comparison freezes unequal degrees of advancement of a (same kind of) grammaticalization. I will eat is <em>an a-bino cammo </em>in<em> </em>Lango and <em>an a-bi-camo</em> in Acholi, the latter having (probably) further coalesced<em> *an a-bino camo</em> into <em>*an a-bino-camo</em> (affixation), later eroded into <em>an a-bi-camo</em>. </p><ul><li><p><em>Standard Ewe</em> marks the future by prefixing verbs with <em>&#225;-</em> from the verb <em>v&#225;-</em> (<em>to come</em>). </p></li><li><p>Some <em>Kru</em> languages use a derivative of either <em>come</em> or <em>go. </em></p></li><li><p><em>Duala, </em>a<em> Bantu language</em>, uses derivatives of both to nuance future expression.<em> </em></p></li></ul><p>Ultimately, the languages just mentioned share with !Xun the same <em>&#8220;channels of grammaticalization&#8221;</em> - not only the same semantic source, but also the same types of constructions - a <em>complement-based </em>(or <em>particle-based</em>, both differing perhaps only, as we observed, in the degree of coalescence/grammaticalization) and a <em>serializing</em> futures - while a secondary, <em>periphrastic adverbial</em> construction is also observed. (Heine &amp; Reh, 1984, p.131-132) Although contact influences are acknowledged, the respective geographies of the <em>Nilo-Saharan</em> (<em>Nilotic</em>), <em>Niger-Congo</em> (<em>Kru</em> and <em>Bantu</em>) and <em>Kx'a</em> (<em>!Xun</em>) families of languages are mostly disjointed. A genetic explanation for the similitude is also discarded. </p><p>But the distance is even greater with <em>Indo-European languages</em>, where the same <em>great tendency</em> can be observed. We remarked earlier on the English <em>be going to</em>. From this entry point, we shall now turn our attention to <em>Germanic</em> cases of grammaticalization of the future tense from verbs of motion.</p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>African dialects, as we have just noted, offer a snapshot of grammaticalization in progress. As we recall, we can suspect <em>semantic bleaching</em> not to be fully realized in the !Xun (N1)</p><p><em>m&#772; tx&#242;m, &#224; <strong>&#242;-t&#257;</strong> &#449;&#233; (my uncle, you are going to die)</em></p><p>where the future tense marker <em><strong>&#242;-t&#257; </strong>(are going to) </em>still bears the form and phonetic of <em><strong>&#250; t&#257; </strong>&#449;&#233; (go and die) - </em>and<em> might </em>thereby<em> </em>be evocative of the former. </p><p>It is reasonable to assume a similar ambiguity - between motion and future interpretations - for the English <em>be going to + infinitive</em> - an ambiguity that lessens as the phrase enters grammar. (Heine, Kuteva &amp; Narrog, 2017, p.23) Let's observe a passage in 15th-century English (1477, Mubasshir ibn Fatik, <em>Dictes or sayengis of the philosophhres</em>; in Traugott, 2012)</p><p><em>ther passed a theef byfore Alexandre that <strong>was goying to be hanged</strong> whiche saide &#8230;</em></p><p><em>(a thief who was going to be hanged passed before Alexander and said &#8230;)</em></p><p>Here, we visualize clearly the thief literally passing by Alexander on his way to the gallows. But the exact same phrase can also be experienced in a modern way, as an expression of the future stripped of all evocation of motion. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FXXw!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdd2afdff-201b-43fb-bab1-0ea5ab7b2003_700x483.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FXXw!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdd2afdff-201b-43fb-bab1-0ea5ab7b2003_700x483.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FXXw!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdd2afdff-201b-43fb-bab1-0ea5ab7b2003_700x483.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FXXw!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdd2afdff-201b-43fb-bab1-0ea5ab7b2003_700x483.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FXXw!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdd2afdff-201b-43fb-bab1-0ea5ab7b2003_700x483.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FXXw!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdd2afdff-201b-43fb-bab1-0ea5ab7b2003_700x483.jpeg" width="534" height="368.46" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/dd2afdff-201b-43fb-bab1-0ea5ab7b2003_700x483.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:483,&quot;width&quot;:700,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:534,&quot;bytes&quot;:249700,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FXXw!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdd2afdff-201b-43fb-bab1-0ea5ab7b2003_700x483.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FXXw!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdd2afdff-201b-43fb-bab1-0ea5ab7b2003_700x483.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FXXw!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdd2afdff-201b-43fb-bab1-0ea5ab7b2003_700x483.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FXXw!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdd2afdff-201b-43fb-bab1-0ea5ab7b2003_700x483.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Alexander the Great and Bucephalus, Alexander Mosaic, Pompeii, c. 100 AD</figcaption></figure></div><p>The following passages trace the gradual emergence of the construction in <em>The Penn-Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Early Modern English.</em> Throughout the first half of the 17th century, <em>be going to</em> is mostly followed by a place name, and fewer than ten occurrences by an infinite verb. In the very first we encounter (1599)  </p><p><em>Sir, the Germane desires to haue three of your horses : the Duke himselfe will be to morrow at Court, and they <strong>are</strong> <strong>going to meet</strong> him. </em></p><p>the preceding clause indicates the <em>place (at the Court) and time (to morrow)</em> of future action (<em>meet him</em>): this action is both <em>&#8220;meet&#8221;</em> (in the future) and <em>&#8220;going (to that place)&#8221;</em>. Interestingly, the interpretation can be wholly that of motion without loss of the future tense: <em>to morrow</em> already bears it. In this early instance, <em>be going to + infinitive</em> is a redundant future tense carrier. </p><p>Next, a passage by Shakespeare, in the &#8220;buck-basket scene&#8221; from <em>The Merry Wives of Windsor </em>(1599), catches our attention. (The merry wives trick Falstaff into hiding in the basket, which their servants then carry to dump into the Thames.) </p><p><em>Looke, heere is a basket, if he be of any reasonable stature, he may creepe in heere, and throw fowle linnen vpon him, as if it <strong>were going to bucking</strong></em></p><p>A rare occurrence followed by a gerund, which can be interpreted as a place (the place of <em>bucking</em>) or an activity (the process of <em>being bucked</em>, with <em>fowle linnen (foul laundry)</em> as the passive subject). </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!e3wD!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3dffb19-0233-43e3-a5ee-4d749a7ad2d3_1280x1005.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!e3wD!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3dffb19-0233-43e3-a5ee-4d749a7ad2d3_1280x1005.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!e3wD!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3dffb19-0233-43e3-a5ee-4d749a7ad2d3_1280x1005.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!e3wD!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3dffb19-0233-43e3-a5ee-4d749a7ad2d3_1280x1005.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!e3wD!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3dffb19-0233-43e3-a5ee-4d749a7ad2d3_1280x1005.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!e3wD!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3dffb19-0233-43e3-a5ee-4d749a7ad2d3_1280x1005.jpeg" width="1280" height="1005" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d3dffb19-0233-43e3-a5ee-4d749a7ad2d3_1280x1005.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1005,&quot;width&quot;:1280,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:323267,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!e3wD!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3dffb19-0233-43e3-a5ee-4d749a7ad2d3_1280x1005.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!e3wD!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3dffb19-0233-43e3-a5ee-4d749a7ad2d3_1280x1005.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!e3wD!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3dffb19-0233-43e3-a5ee-4d749a7ad2d3_1280x1005.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!e3wD!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3dffb19-0233-43e3-a5ee-4d749a7ad2d3_1280x1005.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Falstaff by Orson Welles, 1967</figcaption></figure></div><p>Just like above, in the following (1647-1648) </p><p><em>It is now about 12 of the clock, Mooneday noone and my Cozin Dalison <strong>is going to take</strong> water for Gravesend. Shee will bee at Deane Tuesday night.</em></p><p><em>Mooneday noone </em>already<em> </em>bears the temporal reference, making<em> is going to (take)</em> potentially redundant as a future marker.</p><p>In a late 17th century instance (1696)</p><p><em>The greatness of your Necessities, Tam, is the worst Argument in the World for your being patiently heard. I do believe you <strong>are</strong> <strong>going to make</strong> me a very good Speech, but</em></p><p>the context involves no indication of place and time, and <em>abstraction</em> to a mere future tense marker has clearly taken off. </p><p>What drives language change? What force causes lexical items to shift to grammatical ones? It is usage, it seems, that secretes grammar. </p><blockquote><p><em>&#8230; [interlocutors] constantly propose new discourse options, and some of these new options may be used regularly and give rise to new patterns of grammar.</em></p></blockquote><p>(Heine, Kuteva &amp; Narrog, 2017, p.23) </p><p>Source selection - verbs of <em>motion</em>, for English <em>will</em>, <a href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/publish/post/154904879">as we have seen</a>, <em>intention</em> - is governed by semantic implication. In <em>to go (to) </em>or <em>to come (to)</em> space and time fuse. Both imply an action that unfolds in the future, namely, <em>until</em> (time) arrival <em>where</em> (place) the verbal complement points to. In short, the scenario might be as follows. A language originally lacks a stable, unambiguous means of expressing some abstract notion - perhaps interlocutors are often forced into periphrases, misunderstood, or asked to repeat. They unconsciously take advantage of a semantic bridge, which usage formalizes. A space-time metaphor. </p><p>Once grammaticalization is complete, the frequency of occurrence in the corpus increases. Analysis of discrete samples is no longer adequate to capture patterns. Hilpert (2008) proposes a quantitative study of the Germanic future: he scans corpora for <em>collexemes</em> of future-expressing constructions, the lexical items they statistically attract most. (Co-occurrence frequencies are corrected for total corpus frequencies.)</p><p>In the <em>British national Corpus</em> (late 20th century), <em>depend</em>, <em>know</em>, <em>remain</em> and <em>become</em> rank among the top collexemes of <em>will</em>, while <em>be going to</em> strongly attracts <em>do</em>, <em>get</em>, <em>say</em>, <em>put</em> or <em>kill</em>. (Hilpert, 2008, p.40-41) The latter clearly involve an intentional and voluntary agent who has control over an action (<em>agentiveness</em>), and they require or likely come with a direct object (<em>transitivity</em>). In contrast, the former are non-agentive. Arithmetic confirms that the two constructions expressing the future have distinct semantic preferences, which raises questions about their interchangeability. Why does <em>is going to</em> attract agentive, imperfective and transitive verbs? Hilpert's statistics also tell us about the paths of grammaticalization. </p><div><hr></div><p>Bybee and Pagliuca (1987) confirm the polysemy, in many languages, of future markers. Unsurprisingly, modal nuances abound among the additional meanings. Future tense is a very special tense indeed. Unlike past and present tenses, it concerns what has not yet taken place: realization, at the time of utterance, is no more than a possibility - backed up by a desire, an intention, an obligation, a strong probability. The semantic halo of a future tense marker, the authors recognize, is linked to the meanings of its lexical source. Old English <em>s&#267;eal</em> was primarily used for commands and modern <em>shall</em> still denotes obligation while <em>will</em> is historically desire-based; movement-based futures, for their part, carry less nuances of modality. The authors further suggest that there exist a typical, four-stage semantic progression that holds across languages. Hilpert account for the model as follows:</p><ol><li><p><em>Obligation, desire, ability, come, go</em></p></li><li><p><em>Intention, root-possibility, immediate future</em></p></li><li><p><em>Future</em></p></li><li><p><em>Probability, possibility, imperative, use in complements</em></p></li></ol><p>It makes two notable hypotheses. First, both modality-based and movement-based futures develop necessarily through an early stage where <em>intention</em> is expressed. (This may not be clear from the outline above, where the second stage seems to present several semantic options including intention, but Hilpert makes otherwise explicit that this has been posited by Bybee and Pagliuca.) Second, future marking and expression are not the term of semantic development. The grammaticalized future marker is the source from which other meanings develop. (Hilpert, 2008, 24-27) </p><p>Hilpert puts this model to the test by systematically studying the collexemes of three movement-based future tense marker, Dutch <em><strong>gaan</strong></em>, English<strong> </strong><em><strong>be going to </strong></em>and Swedish <em><strong>komma att</strong></em>. (Hilpert, 2008, p.113-122; p.126-131) </p><p>While modern <em>be going to</em>, as we have mentioned, is found to attract <em>&#8220;verbs that are transitive, punctual, and highly agentive&#8221;</em>, verbal complements to modern <em>gaan</em> are most often &#8220;<em>intransitive, temporally extended, and non-agentive&#8221;</em>. Diachronic corpus studies <em>&#8220;suggest that these differences are not due to recent semantic changes&#8221;</em>: despite similarities in the broad outlines, the details of their semantic paths differ. </p><p>Dutch, like English, readily expresses the future with the present tense, but also features two specific periphrastic constructions: resorting to the auxiliaries <em><strong>zullen</strong></em> and <em><strong>gaan</strong></em>. <em>zullen</em> is a <em>temporal</em> auxiliary: of the <em>future</em> <em>(will, is going to)</em> when conjugated in the present tense, of the <em>conditional</em> <em>(would)</em> when conjugated in the past tense. But it is also a <em>modal</em> auxiliary, with nuances of <em>possibility</em>, <em>probability</em>, <em>moral obligation</em> (probably then closest rendered by the German <em>sollen</em>). The different shades are difficult to disentangle in </p><p><em>Nou, verbeter je maar in het vervolg. Morgen <strong>zullen</strong> we je wel <strong>helpen</strong>. </em></p><p><em>(Well, improve yourself in the future. Tomorrow we will (be there to / be able to / be glad to) help you.)</em></p><p><em>(Louis Couperus, </em>Noodlot<em>, 1918) </em></p><p>Here, <em>zullen</em> clearly works as a future auxiliary, underpinned by the time adjunct <em>tomorrow</em>, but the context (the addressee is invited to improve, he can still be helped tomorrow, but this may be the last time, and the adverb <em>wel</em> bears a potential hue of likelihood) reawaken the modal flavors.  </p><p>A <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_grammar#Future">modern grammar</a> will endorse <em>gaan (to go)</em> as a future auxiliary </p><ol><li><p>when the agent literally is moving to a place to perform an action,</p></li><li><p>more generally, to indicate any kind of intention or plan to perform the action, or</p></li><li><p>to indicate the start of an action in the future. <em>Het <strong>gaat</strong> zo hard <strong>regenen</strong>. (It is going to rain / start raining. [It doesn&#8217;t rain yet])</em></p></li></ol><p>and deplore that, in practice, the use of <em>gaan</em> is stepping on <em>zullen</em>'s toes. </p><p>In the 16th and 17th centuries, verbs of <em>movement</em> and <em>posture</em> are the ones most frequently attracted by <em>gaan</em>. (Hilpert, 2008, p.116)</p><p><em>Nu willic <strong>gaan lopen</strong> al in mijn huus. (Now I want to go home.)</em></p><p><em>Daer <strong>gaet</strong> hij <strong>strijcken</strong>! (There he&#8217;s running off"!)</em></p><p>Besides <em>lopen (walk), strijken (run off), reizen (travel), liggen (lie), treden (step), verhuizen (move)</em>, we also find some activity verbs such as <em>preken (preach) </em>or<em> stellen (put)</em>. We can note the preeminence of <em>agentiveness</em>, <em>intention</em>, and <em>atelicity</em> (lack of a specific end point). (<em>To preach</em> (<em>preken</em>) is intentional, accomplished by an agent, and continues as long as the action occurs. In contrast, <em>to pronounce</em> is telic - it requires something to be pronounced - a speech -, and concludes by the end of it.)</p><p>Second-period verbs, in the 18th and 19th century extend their span to <em>telic</em> verbs such as <em>opzoeken (find), onderzoeken (analyze), vertellen (tell), geven (give) </em>or<em> nemen (take)</em>; intention and agentiveness fade, as for instance <em>gaan sterven</em> <em>(die) </em>joins the top collexemes. </p><p><em>Uilenspiegel zeide tot Nele: -Liefste nu <strong>gaan</strong> we <strong>sterven</strong>. (Uilenspiegel said to Nele: -Darling, now we&#8217;re going to die.)</em></p><p>The trend extends into modern times, with the notable attraction of cognition and emotion verbs: <em>beminnen (love), voelen (feel), twijfelen (doubt). </em>The latter are low in agentiveness and intention, as the following example clearly shows.</p><p><em>en daardoor gaat ge twijfelen aan het echt-yijn dier (and that makes you doubt the reality of that benevolence)</em></p><p>Whereas <em><strong>gaan</strong></em> has a clear preference for verbs of <em>movement</em> and <em>posture</em>, <em><strong>be going to</strong></em> particularly attracts <em>speech act verbs</em>. Such preferences, Hilpert postulate, <em>drive</em> semantic development. <em>&#8220;Verbs such as answer or begin are perfective, and thus prefigure the modern tendency of be going to to express punctual, telic events.&#8221; </em>Like <em>gaan</em>, <em>be going to</em> begins (1710-1780) by attracting verbs high in <em>intention</em> and <em>agentiveness</em>:<em> say, fight, give, make</em>. Unintentional, non-agentive future events make their appearance in a second period (1780-1850). </p><p><em>In the true sleepy tone of a Scottish matron when ten o&#8217;clock <strong>is going to strike</strong>.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QI4M!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2e70b75-a532-4833-aa9a-b3612ca7f1e0_7901x2998.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QI4M!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2e70b75-a532-4833-aa9a-b3612ca7f1e0_7901x2998.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QI4M!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2e70b75-a532-4833-aa9a-b3612ca7f1e0_7901x2998.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QI4M!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2e70b75-a532-4833-aa9a-b3612ca7f1e0_7901x2998.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QI4M!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2e70b75-a532-4833-aa9a-b3612ca7f1e0_7901x2998.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QI4M!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2e70b75-a532-4833-aa9a-b3612ca7f1e0_7901x2998.jpeg" width="1456" height="552" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d2e70b75-a532-4833-aa9a-b3612ca7f1e0_7901x2998.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:552,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:2509747,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QI4M!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2e70b75-a532-4833-aa9a-b3612ca7f1e0_7901x2998.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QI4M!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2e70b75-a532-4833-aa9a-b3612ca7f1e0_7901x2998.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QI4M!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2e70b75-a532-4833-aa9a-b3612ca7f1e0_7901x2998.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QI4M!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2e70b75-a532-4833-aa9a-b3612ca7f1e0_7901x2998.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Library, Stockholm, Sweden</figcaption></figure></div><p>So far, in spite of the different paths taken, Bybee and Pagliuca's hypothesis holds: intention dominates the early stages. Not so for the Swedish future marker <em><strong>komma att</strong></em>, diachronic statistics reveal: its beginning (16th-18th century) most frequently describes <em>&#8220;involuntary reactions and non-agentive human activities&#8221;</em>, e.g. <em>f&#246;rakta (despise), sova (sleep), rodna (blush) </em>or<em> h&#246;ra (hear)</em>. (Hilpert, 2008, p.129-131)</p><p><em>Men man<strong> kommer att h&#246;ra</strong> talas om honom! (But we are going to hear people talk about him!)</em></p><p>The next period (19th century) continues to feature involuntary emotional responses with <em>gr&#229;ta (cry), gl&#228;dja (delight) </em>or<em> skratta (laugh)</em>; yet, intention is on the rise, or at least polysemy opens the door for intentional interpretation. For instance, intention, futurity and modality conflate in </p><p><em>Snart <strong>kommer</strong> nog andra<strong> att s&#228;ga </strong>dig det, mumlade den gr&#229;sk&#228;ggige. (Soon others will tell you so, mumbled the man with the grey beard.)</em></p><p>Only recently can <em>komma att </em>be<em> &#8220;felicitously combined&#8221; </em>with intentional activities:<em> klara (manage, succeed) </em>or<em> skicka (send).  </em></p><p>Ultimately, Hilpert's quantitative analysis succeeds in particular because it combines large number crunching with the pleasing and epistemologically sound examination of discrete corpus occurrences. In Swedish, abstraction from the notion of movement to that of future operates without the intermediary of intention.  </p><p>There are, however, a few objections to the study of collexemes outlined above. Since large numbers are required, history is necessarily cut into thick slices. The only way to feel the nuances of evolution is still to consult discrete samples that line it up. Hilpert seems interested primarily in the characteristics, in particular the <em>intention</em> and <em>agentivity</em> content, <em>of</em> <em>verbs frequently attracted</em> by our auxiliaries. He compiles frequent collexemes, assesses their degree of intention against the dictionary - weak for <em>sterven (die)</em> or <em>gr&#229;ta (cry) </em>or<em> skratta (laugh)</em>, strong for <em>nemen (take)</em> -, and draws conclusions. Yet the degree of intention is always <em>contextual</em>: the actor intends to <em>laugh</em> and <em>cry</em>. Hilpert himself concedes this incidentally: he justifies an incongruous occurrence of a verb of intention, <em>h&#228;mnas (to take revenge) </em>in the first period of <em>komma att</em> by its denaturing by the context into denoting a <em>&#8220;reaction to an emotional state&#8221;</em>, in reference to</p><p><em>han &#228;r missn&#246;jd och han kommer nog att h&#228;mnas! </em></p><p><em>(He&#8217;s angry, and he&#8217;s probably going to seek revenge!)</em></p><blockquote><p><em>While requiring intention, the verb h&#228;mnas thus bears some resemblance to the other distinctive collexemes f&#246;rakta (despise) and rodna (blush) which denote involuntary psychophysical responses. </em>(Hilpert, 2008, p.129) </p></blockquote><p>Finally, both Hilpert and Bybee and Pagliuca may be objected to for the sophistication of their argumentation; to examine whether &#8220;future meaning&#8221; historically derives from &#8220;meaning of intention&#8221; in movement-based futures, it is ultimately not necessary to recount the entire history of occurrences, and measure their degree of intention, either by calculation or patient exegesis. An look at the auxiliaries and common sense are enough:<em> to go (gaan, be going to)</em> or<em> to come (komma att) </em>require an agent, who intends to do so. There is always intention in verbs of movement. In their defense, these studies, notwithstanding the theoretical quibbles, are an encouragement to go through the corpora, feel the semantic nuances, and understand the usages, particularly in those of the languages evoked that are foreign to us.  </p><div><hr></div><p>Across languages, future tense develops its markers quite unanimously from verbs of movement or modality. In contrast, the semantic, morphological and syntactic pathways are very diverse. In particular, it is difficult, in view of the arguments put forward earlier, to conclude that there are universal stages of semantic development. Their authors are the scientific grammarians dreamed of by the late 19th century:</p><blockquote><p><em>Als Aufgabe der wissenschaftlichen Grammatik k&#246;nnen wir kurz die Erkl&#228;rung der Formen einer Sprache bezeichnen und zwar in der Weise, wie sie entstanden sind. (M&#252;ller, 1976; in Heine, 1984, p.266)</em></p></blockquote><p><em>&#8220;We can briefly describe the task of scientific grammar as the elucidation of the forms of a language, namely in the way they have developed.&#8221;</em></p><p>The future is a very special tense. Unlike the past and the present, it doesn't really exist: it doesn't exist yet. It is no surprise that it often carries a bit of that modal tone that connotes the real and the possible. Despite the variations, the idea of intention is never far away. It accompanies the early metamorphosis of Dutch <em>gaan</em> and English <em>be going to</em> from the literal to the figurative. It is obvious in desire-based futures, as English <em>will</em>. In all instances, the metaphor is very intuitive: intention wishes present thoughts to become future reality; spatial movement implies and evokes the time needed for the journey. </p><p>Language, we say, is in motion, and grammar, usage that has become form. This is rather paradoxical. If grammar is to accurately describe the rule system of a language, those rules and that language must be fixed. (It is impossible to take a snapshot of a body in motion.) If grammar is to prescribe the correct use of a language, its mandate permits no innovation. (Innovation requires - at least infinitesimal - dissidence from existing rules.) We can thereby claim that the grammar of a language in motion doesn't exist. It might be the invention humans infatuated in typology and completeness. The advent of intelligent machines is perhaps proof that, equipped with certain neural networks, one can finely process and generate language without awareness or abstraction of the presumed rules that regulate its usage. Naturally, if the existence of grammar is doubtful, so to is that of grammaticalization: language and its uses just continue their great intuitive movement, where mores, society, technology and communication intermingle. </p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p><em>References</em></p><p>Heine, B., Kuteva, T., &amp; Narrog, H. (2017).<em> Back again to the future: How to account for directionality in grammatical change. </em>In W. Bisang &amp; A. Malchukov (eds.), <em>Unity and diversity in grammaticalization scenarios</em> (pp. 1-29). Berlin: Language Science Press.</p><p>Heine B, Reh M. (1984). <em>Grammaticalization and Reanalysis in African Languages</em>. Hamburg: Buske</p><p>Hilpert, M. (2008). <em>Germanic future constructions: A usage-based approach to language change</em>. John Benjamins Publishing Company.</p><p>Traugott, Elizabeth C. (2012). <em>Grammatical constructionalization: Rethinking grammaticalization in the light of constructionalization. </em>Paper presented at the University of Santiago de Compostela, 17 October 2012.</p><p>Anthony Kroch, Beatrice Santorini, and Lauren Delfs. 2004. <em>The Penn-Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Early Modern English (PPCEME)</em>. Department of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania. CD-ROM, first edition, (<a href="http://www.ling.upenn.edu/hist-corpora/">http://www.ling.upenn.edu/hist-corpora/</a>).</p><p>Bybee, Joan L., &amp; Pagliuca, William. (1987). <em>The evolution of future meaning. </em>In A.G. Ramat, O. Carruba, &amp; G. Bernini (eds.), Papers from the 7th International Conference on Historical Linguistics [Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 48] (pp. 109-122). John Benjamins</p><p></p><p><br><br></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[The Skáld-Machine]]></title><description><![CDATA[In the age of intelligent machines, why does Galois compose their essays archaically? Archaically, that is to say, by the sheer force of human information processing. Even more, Galois, as far as the current era, its mood and magnetic forces still allow, is committed to the strict use of their biological neural networks, not only to compose, but to research, intersect, examine, translate, summarize, invent and, in general, think. All of which is already, on the part of a human, archaic and soon will, probably, be downright obsolete.]]></description><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/the-skald-machine-6bd</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/the-skald-machine-6bd</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Galois]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Mon, 27 Jan 2025 12:13:51 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/89eb9c40-c28b-49ff-994d-db47b6621818_4080x3060.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>In the age of<em> intelligent machines</em>, why does Galois compose their essays archaically? Archaically, that is to say, by the sheer force of human information processing. Even more, Galois, as far as the current era, its mood and magnetic forces still allow, is committed to the strict use of their biological neural networks, not only to compose, but to research, intersect, examine, translate, summarize, invent and, in general, think. All of which is already, on the part of a human, archaic and soon will, probably, be downright <em>obsolete</em>.   </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hciq!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ba0a13e-9950-4788-9eb5-d520364b1382_800x218.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hciq!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ba0a13e-9950-4788-9eb5-d520364b1382_800x218.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hciq!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ba0a13e-9950-4788-9eb5-d520364b1382_800x218.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hciq!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ba0a13e-9950-4788-9eb5-d520364b1382_800x218.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hciq!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ba0a13e-9950-4788-9eb5-d520364b1382_800x218.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hciq!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ba0a13e-9950-4788-9eb5-d520364b1382_800x218.jpeg" width="560" height="152.6" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/1ba0a13e-9950-4788-9eb5-d520364b1382_800x218.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:218,&quot;width&quot;:800,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:560,&quot;bytes&quot;:79609,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hciq!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ba0a13e-9950-4788-9eb5-d520364b1382_800x218.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hciq!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ba0a13e-9950-4788-9eb5-d520364b1382_800x218.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hciq!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ba0a13e-9950-4788-9eb5-d520364b1382_800x218.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hciq!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ba0a13e-9950-4788-9eb5-d520364b1382_800x218.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Gerhard Munthe, illustration for The Saga of Magnus' Sons, "King Sigurd Sails Out from the Land", Heimskringla, J.M. Stenersen &amp; Co, 1899</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>Not to use the tools born of the great odyssey of science and technology is, at minimum, to display affectation - the pretense and artificial display of maintaining outdated methods. A ridiculous conservatism, some would argue. With no regard for the cumulative millennia of expended nerves, blood and brain spent developing progressive machines, finally computational ones, whose effects have freed each new generation from the burden of another drudgery. A kind of refractory autism, that of a post-Gutenberg revolution copyist, of a teenager, secret Friday-night video-game player, who in class makes it a point of honor to do all his mental arithmetic in his head. </p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p>Yet, the printing press did not penetrate every cottage, to replace there <em>something</em>. Quite the opposite, it catalyzed the massive training of minds that led to the advent of the computer scientist, the processor-designer, and silicon-based computing centers. It has opened up an ascending movement, where minds and machines, necessarily, progress together, reciprocally perfecting each other. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hlXr!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcd705f0d-9ff8-4674-b235-7296aeb517e0_270x598.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hlXr!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcd705f0d-9ff8-4674-b235-7296aeb517e0_270x598.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hlXr!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcd705f0d-9ff8-4674-b235-7296aeb517e0_270x598.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hlXr!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcd705f0d-9ff8-4674-b235-7296aeb517e0_270x598.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hlXr!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcd705f0d-9ff8-4674-b235-7296aeb517e0_270x598.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hlXr!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcd705f0d-9ff8-4674-b235-7296aeb517e0_270x598.jpeg" width="270" height="598" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/cd705f0d-9ff8-4674-b235-7296aeb517e0_270x598.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:598,&quot;width&quot;:270,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:59484,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hlXr!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcd705f0d-9ff8-4674-b235-7296aeb517e0_270x598.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hlXr!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcd705f0d-9ff8-4674-b235-7296aeb517e0_270x598.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hlXr!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcd705f0d-9ff8-4674-b235-7296aeb517e0_270x598.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hlXr!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcd705f0d-9ff8-4674-b235-7296aeb517e0_270x598.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Anonymous depiction of Odin, Icelandic manuscript, circa 1680</figcaption></figure></div><p>Generative artificial intelligence ushers in an absolutely new era, which clearly threatens human mental forces with dereliction and desuetude. But how, both intelligences complement each other!, already protest the avant-gardes of the future and the chip peddlers. By using an Archimedean lever, your physical forces are magnified many times over. The result, the total work expended, is incommensurably greater. The strongest of colossi is exceeded by the average stature when equipped with the proper apparatus, thereby depriving the colossus of all comparative advantage, other than decorative, on an outmoded note. There remains, in a special corner of the universe, the <em>Guinness Book of Records</em>, and Olympic contests, a niche market for the antiquarians of physical strength. In short, the lever does indeed <em>complement</em> human force, but also <em>dispenses</em> with any lustre in the matter, except for the display. The utterly unsentimental demands of the social machine and the productive machine - in a word, of progress - ultimately care nothing for the author of the act, as long as the force is deployed. The colossus can recycle itself into <em>mannequin work</em>.</p><p>We are inclined to think that the analogy holds entirely when considering the neuronal counterpart of the lever. The average translator endowed with an internet connection is more accurate, more productive and more multilingual than the most erudite of scholars polished by the ages, when it comes to the <em>majority</em> of materials - say, with the minute and shrinking exception of the most sophisticated.  The same goes for summarizers, exegetes and quill-drivers. Catchphrases and headlines coiners, office strategists, advice-givers or speech-, ghost- and scriptwriters. As with physical strength, the machine couldn't care less about your name or the glow your remnant instinct for survival and distinction would like to associate with it. If you score very high in numerical and verbal processing, you will soon be impressing no one but yourself. Because your results, which you know are sincerely natural and naturally high, are already by far dwarfed by the minimal, routine efforts of a naturally more robust and infinitely scalable infrastructure. </p><p>As with physical force, the great tendency at work, the irresistible drive of progress, prompts our species - that of the consumptive majority or<em> mass society</em>, the infinitesimal <em>top few</em> having almost already branched off onto a new branch of the phylogenetic tree - to accommodate its averaging out, or so to speak, if we subtract from the term its connotation because the point is to argue, rather than polemicize, its <em>mediocritization </em>in intelligence. Yes, human and machine intelligences <em>complement</em> each other, and their conjugated output could very well anonymously surpass any cognitive abilities hitherto conceivable. But this is at the <em>expense</em> of the human share in these capabilities: <em>if you don't use it, you lose it</em>. </p><p>Repeat several times if you have to, and remember: if you don't use it, you lose it.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lb-K!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1acf1b98-1eff-4ecf-abb4-fc70e163ba19_551x600.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lb-K!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1acf1b98-1eff-4ecf-abb4-fc70e163ba19_551x600.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lb-K!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1acf1b98-1eff-4ecf-abb4-fc70e163ba19_551x600.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lb-K!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1acf1b98-1eff-4ecf-abb4-fc70e163ba19_551x600.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lb-K!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1acf1b98-1eff-4ecf-abb4-fc70e163ba19_551x600.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lb-K!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1acf1b98-1eff-4ecf-abb4-fc70e163ba19_551x600.jpeg" width="335" height="364.79128856624317" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/1acf1b98-1eff-4ecf-abb4-fc70e163ba19_551x600.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:600,&quot;width&quot;:551,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:335,&quot;bytes&quot;:81798,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lb-K!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1acf1b98-1eff-4ecf-abb4-fc70e163ba19_551x600.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lb-K!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1acf1b98-1eff-4ecf-abb4-fc70e163ba19_551x600.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lb-K!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1acf1b98-1eff-4ecf-abb4-fc70e163ba19_551x600.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lb-K!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1acf1b98-1eff-4ecf-abb4-fc70e163ba19_551x600.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Gerhard Munthe, illustration for Olaf the Holy's saga, Heimskringla, J.M. Stenersen &amp; Co, 1899</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>This is, organically, biology. The principles are many millennia-old and now well known to competent neuroscientific services. At the cellular level, a cortex of specialized units is activated by the rhythm of their <em>usage</em>. Discharges are electrical. Electricity runs along the axons, those long wired extensions of nerve cells, whose myelin sheaths make them look just like high-voltage cables. The arithmetical sum of activations on axon endings afferent to a subsequent cell determines signal transmission. At the axon-neuron junction, the electrical signal more precisely converts into a chemical signal, and we reach the molecular level. A set of messenger molecules, the neurotransmitters, trigger the opening of ion channels across the membrane of the recipient cell, and the difference in charge between the latter&#8217;s intercellular and intracellular milieu imparts the electrical discharge to it. The recipient cell is activated. Electricity, chemical bridges, electricity, etc. Billions and billions of neurons, their aggregates in lobes and crowns.    </p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/the-skald-machine-6bd?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/the-skald-machine-6bd?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share"><span>Share</span></a></p><p>We said neuroscience was highly evolved. Despite obvious progress, many mysteries persist: <em>consciousness</em>, <em>emotions</em>, <em>abilities</em>, <em>memory</em>, <em>will</em> - and, of course, <em>language learning</em>. One thing is however certain and known to the lowliest biologist. The more active a brain function, the more efficient it becomes. Conversely, an abandoned circuit is lost to excellence. It falls out of order. The bed of the electric stream narrows into a creek and eventually dries up. (Deshpande &amp; Wang, 2022) The phenomenon or biological capacity underlying this reinforcement or deprecation of circuits is cerebral <em>plasticity</em>. Axons have the power to reorganize their terminations, so as to connect with one recipient neuron or another. This plasticity enables learning, that is, the improvement of a capability, by reinforcing a specific neural circuit. The brain learns Old Norse or, say, arithmetic. But conversely, the exercise of learning improves plasticity: the more the brain learns - of something - the more plastic it becomes, and quicker to learn the same kind of thing, or whatsoever. </p><p>In short, practice enhances plasticity, plasticity enhances practice, and so on - we are indeed quite a machine! Understanding a little bit of the mechanics involved already indicates what needs to be done. </p><div><hr></div><p>But we are wandering. We are giving a long answer to the question you did not and will not ask. Not because it does not cross your mind, but because it doesn't make sense, and will less and less, to ask it. You might still, for a moment, wonder in your inner self who composed, Galois or the machine, but seeking confirmation from the author, the machine, or both (since you would be postulating the possibility that they might be one and the same) would entail being better able to trace the origin of the reply provided, than that of the productions to which the question pertains. In short, a little like emotionally asking a probabilistic generator: are you truly sincere? And the foreseeable <em>progress of machines </em>will further blur the dividing line, your reliability - and that of the machine - to detect it will disappear almost perfectly, thereby finishing off the deprecation of the question - and that of <em>authorship</em>.</p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p>Please note that Galois will not ask their reader if he is human either, and as you understand, they could not care less, since they are in a position to demonstrate to no one the virtuosity, depth, erudition or pertinence by which they might have wished to illustrate themselves. And if they lay down their arms in defense of talents that you might have attributed to them if you were in a position to reliably attribute &#8220;their&#8221; productions to them, they don't even ask for the benefit of the doubt: they would risk receiving from you, as a substitute, the kind of fair words and patronizing fawning a child receives from slightly embarrassed adults, when he has made a nice drawing, it is clear that he cannot be expected to become a new <em>Edward Munch</em>, but no one wants to be less than encouraging. In truth, anyone who doubts that your works are your own, but hypothesizes, however faintly, that they are produced by calculation, will soon be paying you the quintessential <em>compliment</em>.  </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jrNT!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8cc56542-9e03-4a0a-842d-009a2dff64d1_800x343.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jrNT!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8cc56542-9e03-4a0a-842d-009a2dff64d1_800x343.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jrNT!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8cc56542-9e03-4a0a-842d-009a2dff64d1_800x343.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jrNT!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8cc56542-9e03-4a0a-842d-009a2dff64d1_800x343.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jrNT!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8cc56542-9e03-4a0a-842d-009a2dff64d1_800x343.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jrNT!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8cc56542-9e03-4a0a-842d-009a2dff64d1_800x343.jpeg" width="800" height="343" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/8cc56542-9e03-4a0a-842d-009a2dff64d1_800x343.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:343,&quot;width&quot;:800,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:120485,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jrNT!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8cc56542-9e03-4a0a-842d-009a2dff64d1_800x343.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jrNT!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8cc56542-9e03-4a0a-842d-009a2dff64d1_800x343.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jrNT!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8cc56542-9e03-4a0a-842d-009a2dff64d1_800x343.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jrNT!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8cc56542-9e03-4a0a-842d-009a2dff64d1_800x343.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Painting by Gerhard Munthe, &#197;smund in the King's Hall, The National Museum of Art, Architecture and Design, Norway, 1902/1904</figcaption></figure></div><p>Here, a farandole of other objectors, at the opposite end of the spectrum, enters the scene. Word-processing machines will never rival humans! They lack Q, where Q denotes a quality that, in the best-intentioned debates, is still widely regarded as strictly human, such as emotion, creativity, esprit-de-finesse, the <em>je-ne-sais-quoi</em> or its close kin, the <em>almost-nothing</em>. In general, those concerned are told, in retort, that they are proving, at the very least, blindness to facts, and certainly, a poor capacity for anticipation, typically ascribed to a deficit in scientific background. Attempts are made to enlighten them on the workings, prowess and promises of artificial intelligence, but most often to no avail. There always remains a little something spiritual to be defended for these idealists of human preeminence preservation. They worship, deplore our very 21st-century scientists, a brain in a jar of formaldehyde in a decaying natural history museum amidst a smart city rocketing with flying vessels. </p><p>In the absence of weights and measures, these conviction-based disputes can go on forever. Yet, we can try to slip in a small but essential accounting element. As we have said earlier, the human being, in the mundane, majority use of their natural intelligence, has already been replaced - or is imminently replaceable subject to a few machine-world interface tweaks. Moreover, innovation is in full swing. The treatment of its disconcerting exponential acceleration is itself already archived among the platitudes. And the confluence of financial flows towards yield-enhancing automation technologies forebodes the perpetuation and reinforcement of the <em>brain drain</em> fueling the trend. A shrinking caste of <em>precision engineers</em> is perfecting at high output, in the machine room, its own robotization.</p><p>Thereby, the share of mundane intelligence soars. The movement is twofold. The machine conquers, and thus trivializes, the complex. Humans standardize, average out, in a word, simplify. The machine's democratic accessibility decisively explains the latter. Artificial intelligence, for its part, does penetrate the remotest cottage. The machine humbles us, it is close to being better than us, in most cases. We have it at our fingertips, we overuse it, and our own capabilities recede accordingly. Here again, financial incentives come into play, and they don't encourage exercise, which calls for voluntary impetus from a certain <em>discipline</em>.</p><p>This still leaves the ever more marginal upper end of the Gaussian distribution: the <em>virtuoso</em> exercising his predilection might embody that very human something longed for by the aforementioned cantors of some kind of confident humanism. Unlike the mundane performances of intelligence, his spectacle is not subjected to the binary or further discretionary assessments ruling the productive sphere: it would be injurious to pass it by the sieve of <em>Quality of Service</em>. He represents, versus the mass-produced,<em> </em>the <em>limited edition</em>: even if, somewhere down the line, the self-assembly table is to some extent produced by humans, they only intervene insofar as they fulfill their function. They are invariably content with a badge, where the virtuoso had a <em>name</em>, the only thing about him that the merchant sphere - publisher, producer, media or record company - exploited, for want of being able to disentangle and securitize its<em> prowess</em>. In direct line with a very exclusive world of ideas, he used to descend back amongst mortals with an illuminated forehead. Chosen, he was gifted - gifted with a <em>style</em>: he was inimitable. (Here, the anecdotal forgers of history were also virtuosos in their own way.)</p><p>Clearly, this hypothesis of unequaled human virtuosity - it suffices that it be expressed by a few, <em>Bach</em>, <em>Cicero,</em> or <em>Hieronymus Bosch</em> - coincides exactly with the disputes over<em> mind-body dualism</em>. If we believe that perfect reductionism, of soul to brain, can ever be mapped, there is nothing but computation up there. Otherwise, we have a soul supplement. The soul is the organ of feeling, inspiration and meaning. It has a great deal of intuition, but is obviously unable to explain positively how it <em>understands</em> what it is saying. Yet it does, while the statistical machine spews out. </p><p>The <em>total</em> replacement of human intelligence by the machine therefore has the same debate-producing potential as God, eternal life and the gender of angels. </p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>Not using intelligent machines in every instance requires, thus, discipline. But discipline, like beauty or professionalism, admires itself. After a while, one finds pleasure in it. Is Galois, then, a narcissus of self-perfection? Halfway between an ascetic and one who delights in well-turned phrases? Perhaps a little, like all of their era. </p><p>You seem to persist in asking yourself the question you won't ask them, that of why Galois bothers to compose and study with their five senses - Galois still regularly writes with a fountain pen - well, at least, sight, hearing and touch. As we said, their motivation here is by no means the pursuit of results. For their slow, too-human, too-fallible processes would be perfectly counterproductive to that end. Reciprocally, the result-driven motivation, the one that rushes to the automatic translator or answering machine, takes on a <em>productivist</em> perspective: maximizing speed, crossing the quality threshold, fitting into the standard gauge. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4MJZ!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F112e50dc-aa65-463b-a99e-b1fbd5692d30_389x599.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4MJZ!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F112e50dc-aa65-463b-a99e-b1fbd5692d30_389x599.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4MJZ!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F112e50dc-aa65-463b-a99e-b1fbd5692d30_389x599.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4MJZ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F112e50dc-aa65-463b-a99e-b1fbd5692d30_389x599.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4MJZ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F112e50dc-aa65-463b-a99e-b1fbd5692d30_389x599.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4MJZ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F112e50dc-aa65-463b-a99e-b1fbd5692d30_389x599.jpeg" width="389" height="599" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/112e50dc-aa65-463b-a99e-b1fbd5692d30_389x599.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:599,&quot;width&quot;:389,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:88386,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4MJZ!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F112e50dc-aa65-463b-a99e-b1fbd5692d30_389x599.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4MJZ!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F112e50dc-aa65-463b-a99e-b1fbd5692d30_389x599.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4MJZ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F112e50dc-aa65-463b-a99e-b1fbd5692d30_389x599.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4MJZ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F112e50dc-aa65-463b-a99e-b1fbd5692d30_389x599.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>Forbidden Planet</em> (1956), famously featuring Robby the Robot</figcaption></figure></div><p>Even if it is impossible to know, you can always bet on having a virtuoso within yourself, a human part. In any case, you can indulge in honoring yourself as an end, rather than diminishing into a means. Once extricated from the realm of accountancy, the motives and criteria of your achievements have your own worldview as their yardstick. Galois is their own standard. </p><div><hr></div><p>Is Galois a Luddite, a helmsman of progress, an enemy of the Enlightenment? If they managed to arouse such suspicions, they stand corrected. Galois marvels at the technologies their time is perfecting. Of scientific pedigree, they are a fervent contemplator of algorithmic elegance. </p><p>What they maintain, however, is that they resist, in all situations requiring computational outlay, using the machine <em>in the first place</em>. They first try to find the solution by themselves, feeling their way through the darkness for a while if necessary. The machine can, of course, solve the same problem in an instant. But they would be depriving themselves of the exercise. They remember the well-stocked graduate mathematics textbooks. You don&#8217;t learn here by reading the solutions, you learn by searching. By searching for a long time. This is where the brain&#8217;s microcircuits are refined: you compare and contrast, you develop patterns, you progressively master the algebraic material. And they have learned their lesson. </p><p>When they want to write in a foreign language, Galois <em>begins</em> <em>by</em> flexing their strength, giving their best, most genuine effort over an extended period of time, until they achieve a certain satisfaction. Then, they might turn to the machine and converse. They convert back and forth between languages, polish at length and make the final judgment. Yes, in a way, Galois derives time and energy from the great general machinery. They divert it to drive their own little inner theater. </p><p>But you learn <em>Old Norse</em>, you are a little like them.  </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IIID!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b5cf006-bc95-4451-8f55-837c7181f8b6_482x528.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IIID!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b5cf006-bc95-4451-8f55-837c7181f8b6_482x528.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IIID!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b5cf006-bc95-4451-8f55-837c7181f8b6_482x528.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IIID!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b5cf006-bc95-4451-8f55-837c7181f8b6_482x528.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IIID!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b5cf006-bc95-4451-8f55-837c7181f8b6_482x528.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IIID!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b5cf006-bc95-4451-8f55-837c7181f8b6_482x528.jpeg" width="280" height="306.7219917012448" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/2b5cf006-bc95-4451-8f55-837c7181f8b6_482x528.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:528,&quot;width&quot;:482,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:280,&quot;bytes&quot;:33046,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IIID!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b5cf006-bc95-4451-8f55-837c7181f8b6_482x528.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IIID!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b5cf006-bc95-4451-8f55-837c7181f8b6_482x528.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IIID!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b5cf006-bc95-4451-8f55-837c7181f8b6_482x528.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IIID!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b5cf006-bc95-4451-8f55-837c7181f8b6_482x528.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Gerhard Munthe, illustration for The Saga of Harald's Sons, Heimskringla, J.M. Stenersen &amp; Co, 1899</figcaption></figure></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share Old Norse Linguist&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share"><span>Share Old Norse Linguist</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p><em>References</em></p><p>Deshpande, Gopikrishna &amp; Wang, Yun. (2022). <em>Noninvasive Characterization of Functional Pathways in Layer-Specific Microcircuits of the Human Brain Using 7T fMRI</em>. Brain Sciences. 12. 1361. 10.3390/brainsci12101361.</p><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Thanks for reading the Old Norse Linguist</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Future and movement (1)]]></title><description><![CDATA[Of the future tense and its entry into grammar]]></description><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/future-and-movement-i</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/future-and-movement-i</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Galois]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 23 Jan 2025 14:18:37 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/4dac8224-f0fe-48e0-a181-e3bd557b8469_4040x2865.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>We shall be interested here in the <em><strong>grammaticalization of the future tense</strong></em>. The present essay will seek to <em>introduce the concepts</em>, drawing its illustrations from English; the next in the series will examine the phenomenon as it takes place across several languages. </p><p>Grammaticalization, in the broadest sense and abstracting for now from terminology debates, can be defined as the process which, in the history of a language, progressively renders the expression of a notion grammatical. </p><p>How is such a notion originally rendered, if not grammatically? Looking at modern English by way of illustration, it seems that the notion of <em>definiteness</em> is grammaticalized, whereas the notion of <em>size</em> is not. The distinction between indefinite (<em>I saw <strong>a</strong> dog</em>) and definite (<em><strong>the</strong> dog seems happy</em>) is carried by grammatical items, namely indefinite articles (<em>a/an</em> in the singular, absence of an article in the plural) or definite articles (<em>the</em>). In contrast, we have to resort to the lexicon to express something pertaining to the <em>size</em> of the dog. Here, the choice is abundant and unregulated, both register and form. It extends to the spectrum from slang to preciosity, archaisms to neologisms or loanwords. It is not limited to any one grammatical category or construct - adjectives, adverbs, complex periphrases and whole clauses have full license. </p><p><em>A <strong>colossal</strong> dog stands in my way. </em></p><p><em>The dog <strong>dwarfs</strong> the cat. </em></p><p>Comparison, metaphor and other stylistic devices further extend the range of possibilities, when what is spoken of gives way to an image bound only by the limits of the imagination. In Lewis Carroll, it is the rat-hole that defines the dimensions of the small passage, after Alice's fall through the rabbit-hole.</p><p><em>Alice opened the door and found that it led into a <strong>small</strong> passage, <strong>not much larger than a rat-hole.</strong></em></p><p>Here is how Alice pictures the notion of <em>shrinking in size</em>, in order to access the <em>small</em> passage. </p><p><em>"Oh, how I wish I could <strong>shut up like a telescope</strong>! I think I could, if I only knew how to begin."</em></p><p>A wish that later comes true.</p><p><em>&#8220;What a curious feeling! [&#8230;] I must be <strong>shutting up like a telescope</strong>!&#8221;</em></p><p>In the latter sentence, <em>must be</em> is the grammatical vehicle for the expression, thereby (at least partly) grammaticalized, of <em>belief </em>or<em> knowledge</em>, and more broadly, of <em>epistemic modality</em>; <em>modality</em> for the expression of the possibility or necessity for the reality to be a certain way, of <em>epistemic flavor</em> because the possibility is assessed based on some body of <em>knowledge</em>, here empirical (<em>&#8220;What a curious feeling!&#8221;</em>). <em>Might</em>, <em>may</em>, <em>must</em> belong here. Modality has <em>deontic</em> flavor when is expressed the <em>necessity</em> or <em>degree of freedom</em> for reality to be otherwise: reality<em> has to </em>or <em>is allowed to</em> be transformed to accord with certain rules, norms or desires. The injunctive <em>must</em> belongs here. The flavor of modality is <em>dynamic</em> when the possibility is contingent to some <em>qualities</em>, <em>capabilities</em> or <em>circumstances</em>. For instance, the dynamically modal <em>could</em> - a matter of aptitude - in</p><p><em>&#8220;Oh, how I wish I <strong>could</strong> shut up like a telescope!&#8221;</em></p><p>The <em>modal verbs</em> we have just reviewed are at home in English <em>grammar</em>. It is legitimate to wonder why - why these are more grammatical than other words, maybe <em>small</em> or <em>telescope</em> - in other words, precisely what makes them<em> grammatical items</em>. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k7zm!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F84b41db7-4b75-4ee9-93b6-5dc29019a04d_800x1000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k7zm!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F84b41db7-4b75-4ee9-93b6-5dc29019a04d_800x1000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k7zm!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F84b41db7-4b75-4ee9-93b6-5dc29019a04d_800x1000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k7zm!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F84b41db7-4b75-4ee9-93b6-5dc29019a04d_800x1000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k7zm!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F84b41db7-4b75-4ee9-93b6-5dc29019a04d_800x1000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k7zm!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F84b41db7-4b75-4ee9-93b6-5dc29019a04d_800x1000.jpeg" width="392" height="490" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/84b41db7-4b75-4ee9-93b6-5dc29019a04d_800x1000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1000,&quot;width&quot;:800,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:392,&quot;bytes&quot;:116226,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k7zm!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F84b41db7-4b75-4ee9-93b6-5dc29019a04d_800x1000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k7zm!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F84b41db7-4b75-4ee9-93b6-5dc29019a04d_800x1000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k7zm!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F84b41db7-4b75-4ee9-93b6-5dc29019a04d_800x1000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k7zm!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F84b41db7-4b75-4ee9-93b6-5dc29019a04d_800x1000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Charles Robinson, illustration for <em>Alice's Adventures in Wonderland</em>, by Lewis Carroll, <em>&#8220;Down the Rabbit-hole&#8221;</em></figcaption></figure></div><p>English <em>modal verbs</em> are of a very special kind. They are <em>auxiliary verbs</em>, verbs that, in accordance with etymology, help others to express a notion, more than they themselves carry meaning. They qualify for the category under the sieve of certain criteria, of which we detail briefly a few. First, auxiliaries can be <em>negated</em> by <em>not</em>, while lexical verbs can&#8217;t. They further have negative inflected forms, as in <em>He <strong>can&#8217;t</strong> be here before late. </em>Second, they take the first position (<em>inversion</em> with the subject) in an interrogative clause. <em><strong>Must</strong> she wear a coat? </em>Third, they can <em>encode</em> a complete verb seen previously. The second <em>could</em> in Alice&#8217;s</p><p><em>"Oh, how I wish I could shut up like a telescope! I think I <strong>could</strong>, [&#8230;]&#8221;</em></p><p>picks up the first complete <em>I could shut up (like a telescope)</em>. </p><p>Furthermore, they qualify as <em>modal</em> auxiliary verbs, a subset of the former group. Further criteria apply. Contrary to non-modal auxiliary, they show <em>no subject verb agreement</em>. <em>This <strong>might</strong></em> <em>happen </em>and not <em>*might-s</em>.  They lack <em>untensed forms</em>, namely the unmarked verb, such as <em>be</em> in <em>I&#8217;ll <strong>be</strong> here,</em> and the gerund-participle, such as <em>being</em> in <em>He dislikes <strong>being</strong> bullied</em>. <em>*He will </em>must<em> make do</em> or <em>*He was </em>canning<em> speak Old English</em> are clearly grammatically wrong. They can take a <em>bare</em> <em>infinitival clause</em> (a clause with an unmarked verb) as their <em>complement</em>. We have </p><p><em>I could <strong>shut up like a telescope</strong>!</em></p><p>where the bare infinitival clause is highlighted, while the following sentences are ungrammatical:</p><p><em>*I could </em>to shut up<em> like a telescope </em><br><em>*I could </em>shutting up<em> like a telescope</em></p><p>In short, modal verbs constitute a restricted set of words obeying their own rules, and far less bearers of meaning than means to a <em>function</em>. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!H3e0!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcecd42b4-b993-4491-9f9f-8652c5dc533a_1229x1063.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!H3e0!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcecd42b4-b993-4491-9f9f-8652c5dc533a_1229x1063.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!H3e0!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcecd42b4-b993-4491-9f9f-8652c5dc533a_1229x1063.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!H3e0!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcecd42b4-b993-4491-9f9f-8652c5dc533a_1229x1063.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!H3e0!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcecd42b4-b993-4491-9f9f-8652c5dc533a_1229x1063.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!H3e0!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcecd42b4-b993-4491-9f9f-8652c5dc533a_1229x1063.png" width="464" height="401.3279088689992" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/cecd42b4-b993-4491-9f9f-8652c5dc533a_1229x1063.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:false,&quot;imageSize&quot;:&quot;normal&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:1063,&quot;width&quot;:1229,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:464,&quot;bytes&quot;:517322,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!H3e0!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcecd42b4-b993-4491-9f9f-8652c5dc533a_1229x1063.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!H3e0!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcecd42b4-b993-4491-9f9f-8652c5dc533a_1229x1063.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!H3e0!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcecd42b4-b993-4491-9f9f-8652c5dc533a_1229x1063.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!H3e0!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcecd42b4-b993-4491-9f9f-8652c5dc533a_1229x1063.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>&#8220;Then followed the Knave of Hearts.&#8221;    </em>                                                                         Charles Robinson, illustration for <em>Alice's Adventures in Wonderland</em>, by Lewis Carroll, <em>&#8220;The Queen&#8217;s Croquet Ground&#8221; </em></figcaption></figure></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>So far, we have merely clarified the demarcation line between <em>grammatical elements</em>, function words, and <em>lexical elements</em>, content words. Some words belong in the grammar book, others are confined to the dictionary. Yet, we have said nothing about entering grammar: grammaticalization, we claimed, is a <em>process</em>. Let's look at some modal verbs in Shakespeare. <em>A Midsummer Night's Dream</em> was premiered in 1595 or 1596. </p><p><em>Obe. That very time I saw, but <strong>thou</strong> <strong>couldst not</strong>,<br>Flying between the cold moon and the earth,<br>Cupid all arm'd </em></p><p><em>The Tempest</em> in 1610 or 1611</p><p><em>Ste. How now <strong>shall</strong> this be compassed? <strong>Canst</strong><br><strong>thou</strong> bring me to the party?</em></p><p>and </p><p><em>Cal. Within this half hour <strong>will he </strong>be asleep;<br><strong>Wilt thou</strong> destroy him then?</em></p><p>Early Modern English distinguished between a second-person singular (<em>thou</em>) and a second-person plural (<em>you</em> or <em>ye</em>), with verbs agreeing with a distinctly singular second-person subject (distinctly insofar as a second-person plural form of the same verb might exist). All verbs are concerned, including, as we have just noticed, modal auxiliaries. Again in <em>The Tempest</em></p><p><em>Ste. Give me thy hand: I am sorry I beat<br>thee; but, while <strong>thou</strong> <strong>livest</strong>, keep a good tongue<br>in thy head.</em></p><p>In Shakespeare's time, modal verbs were more akin to lexical verbs: they followed the then-current pattern of second-person singular agreement. Lewis Carroll's modal auxiliary morphology, for its part, has departed from the standard conjugation table: it doesn't comply with the modern agreement of lexical verbs, which marks (with an <em>-s</em> suffix) the third person singular.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qPUo!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F322e2b60-47ae-4b33-b0a3-3d644cf10f88_800x583.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qPUo!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F322e2b60-47ae-4b33-b0a3-3d644cf10f88_800x583.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qPUo!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F322e2b60-47ae-4b33-b0a3-3d644cf10f88_800x583.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qPUo!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F322e2b60-47ae-4b33-b0a3-3d644cf10f88_800x583.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qPUo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F322e2b60-47ae-4b33-b0a3-3d644cf10f88_800x583.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qPUo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F322e2b60-47ae-4b33-b0a3-3d644cf10f88_800x583.jpeg" width="800" height="583" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/322e2b60-47ae-4b33-b0a3-3d644cf10f88_800x583.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:583,&quot;width&quot;:800,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:187251,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qPUo!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F322e2b60-47ae-4b33-b0a3-3d644cf10f88_800x583.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qPUo!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F322e2b60-47ae-4b33-b0a3-3d644cf10f88_800x583.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qPUo!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F322e2b60-47ae-4b33-b0a3-3d644cf10f88_800x583.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qPUo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F322e2b60-47ae-4b33-b0a3-3d644cf10f88_800x583.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Paul Jean Gervais, <em>The madness of Titania</em>, 1897</figcaption></figure></div><p>Such <em>morphological reduction </em>- the alienation of auxiliaries from their original category, that of verbs in general, through the loss of morphological features specific to this category - constitutes, according to linguists, one of the frequent mechanisms along <em>grammaticalization</em> pathways. At this stage, our opening definition of grammaticalization requires revision. We have said, in the broad sense, the linguistic process whereby the expression of a notion is rendered grammatical. In a narrower sense, this evolution is more precisely carried by that of a specific linguistic item, from lexical to grammatical. School debates notwithstanding, this is the idea towards which theorists seem to be converging. Notably, Jerzy Kurylowicz: (Kury&#322;owicz, 1965)</p><blockquote><p><em>Grammaticalization consists in the increase of the range of a morpheme advancing from a lexical to a grammatical or from a less grammatical to a more grammatical status, e.g. from a derivative formant to an inflectional one.</em></p></blockquote><p>An elegant definition is that of James A. Matisoff. Grammaticalization is <em>&#8220;a subtype of metaphor&#8221;</em>, <em>&#8220;a metaphorical shift toward the abstract&#8221;</em>. Metaphor, he recalls, means etymologically &#8220;carrying beyond&#8221;, and can be defined as <em>&#8220;an originally conscious or voluntary shift in a word's meaning because of some perceived similarity&#8221;</em>. (Matisoff, 1991)</p><div><hr></div><p>Let's retrace the metaphor for some of our English modal verbs, and get closer to the notion that ultimately interests us: the expression of the future. Here is the drift from Proto-Germanic into Old English and then Middle English for the ancestor of Present Day English <em><strong>to will</strong></em>.</p><p><em>PG *wiljan&#261; (to want) &gt; OE willan (to want, to intend, to desire, to be willing) &gt; ME willen &gt; PDE will</em></p><p><em>willen</em> still carries the nuances of its parent <em>willan</em>, but its function as an auxiliary has emerged. The verb<em> will</em>, in modern dictionaries such as <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/will">Merriam-Webster.com</a>, is first defined as the auxiliary of futurity. The <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/will#English">Wiktionary</a>, for its part, says &#8220;<em>Used to express the future tense, sometimes with an </em>implication of volition or determination <em>when used in the first person</em>&#8221;. <em>Intention</em> or <em>willingness</em> contain the abstract notion of future. <em>To intend</em> is to decide, anticipate and prepare for the action to come; <em>willingness</em> desires or envisions it. The lexical meanings of<em> willen </em>fade away, the underlying notion come to prevail: we clearly observe Matisoff&#8217;s &#8220;<em>metaphorical shift toward the abstract&#8221;</em>. </p><p>A perspicacious reader will nevertheless have noticed a gap: we declared our intention to study the grammaticalization of modal verbs, and find ourselves talking, not about <em>modality</em>, but <em>futurity</em>. In fact, languages often conflate the notions of <em>tense</em> (point in time), <em>aspect</em> (extension in time), and <em>mood</em> (modality), making them difficult to disentangle. The modern auxiliary <em>will</em>, to keep with our example, remains polysemic: the context drives the necessary interpretation. Less frequent uses, <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/will">Merriam-Webster.com</a> tells us, express <em>probability</em> or <em>capability/sufficiency. </em>In<em> Alice's Adventures in Wonderland</em>, <em>&#8220;The Queen&#8217;s Croquet Ground&#8221;</em>, we read</p><p><em>&#8220;No, I didn't,&#8221; said Alice: &#8220;I don't think it's at all a pity. I said 'What for?'&#8220;</em></p><p><em>&#8220;She boxed the Queen's ears&#8212; &#8220;the Rabbit began. Alice gave a little scream of laughter. &#8220;Oh, hush!&#8221; the Rabbit whispered in a frightened tone. &#8220;The Queen <strong>will</strong> hear you! You see she came rather late, and the Queen said&#8212;[&#8230;]&#8221;</em></p><p>Here, the Queen <em>&#8220;will hear&#8221; </em>contingently on a future action, namely that Alice does not remain silent. Therefore, <em>will</em> is a clear operator of the expression of the future. Yet it is only <em>probable</em> that <em>&#8220;The Queen will hear&#8221;</em>. This depends in particular on Alice's behavior and the Queen's hearing acuity. The nuances of <em>tense</em> and <em>mood</em> intermingle to color an expression that only personal interpretation can resolve. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4O3H!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc4c11c57-eff5-4248-a0c3-ef4b2796d058_800x1088.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4O3H!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc4c11c57-eff5-4248-a0c3-ef4b2796d058_800x1088.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4O3H!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc4c11c57-eff5-4248-a0c3-ef4b2796d058_800x1088.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4O3H!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc4c11c57-eff5-4248-a0c3-ef4b2796d058_800x1088.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4O3H!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc4c11c57-eff5-4248-a0c3-ef4b2796d058_800x1088.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4O3H!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc4c11c57-eff5-4248-a0c3-ef4b2796d058_800x1088.jpeg" width="514" height="699.04" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c4c11c57-eff5-4248-a0c3-ef4b2796d058_800x1088.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1088,&quot;width&quot;:800,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:514,&quot;bytes&quot;:480825,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4O3H!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc4c11c57-eff5-4248-a0c3-ef4b2796d058_800x1088.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4O3H!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc4c11c57-eff5-4248-a0c3-ef4b2796d058_800x1088.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4O3H!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc4c11c57-eff5-4248-a0c3-ef4b2796d058_800x1088.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4O3H!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc4c11c57-eff5-4248-a0c3-ef4b2796d058_800x1088.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">John Tenniel, illustration from <em>The Nursery "Alice"</em>, adapted from <em>Alice's Adventures in Wonderland</em> by Lewis Carroll, 1890, British Library</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>Theorists have examined at length <em>grand tendencies</em> in grammaticalization: firstly, they record a certain universality of its generic <em>morphological</em>,<em> semantic, phonological </em>or<em> syntactic mechanisms</em>; the <em>unidirectionality</em> of their deployment, from the lexical to the grammatical and its strengthening, is a debated hypothesis we shall evoke shortly. Secondly, a certain universality, across languages, of the <em>notions that become grammaticalized</em> (e.g., <em>modality</em> or <em>future tense</em>) and their specific <em>semantic </em>(some say<em> cognitive</em>)<em> pathways</em>: frequent semantic source-target pairs, from a lexical meaning to its metaphorical abstraction, emerge (e.g., from <em>intention</em> or <em>willingness</em> to <em>futurity</em>). </p><p>Grammaticalization is a theory, an idea substantiated by empirical evidence. It has its adherents, and more cautious contributors. It may be judicious here to remark on its premises. Grammar, according to grammaticalization, is a <em>&#8220;product of change&#8221;</em>: it can <em>&#8220;be understood as a historical process embedded in use rather than as a purely abstract synchronic state.&#8221;</em> (Hopper, 1996) The phrase <em>&#8220;embedded in use&#8221;</em> is worth noting here. In the course of its history and use, language is, so to speak, in gestation of its systematisms. Universal mechanisms shape its progression along known semantic pathways. The language gradually emerges from the primitiveness of its fluctuation, from a certain <em>looseness</em>, towards a kind of grammaticalized, ideally <em>ordered</em> state. Based on these premises, the discipline seems to be longing for a large, dual repertoire: that of global mechanisms and that of source-target semantic pairs. Large-scale empirical surveys, such as those carried out by the Africanist Heine (Heine &amp; Reh, 1984), are gathering evidence. Some studies seek to circumscribe and relativize its relevance, without denying it. Ultimately, we can expect to refine our understanding of a language by examining it through the prism of grammaticalization and the encyclopedia of its great tendencies; and we can hope to extract from the universal linguistic pathways recorded truths about human cognition. (Hopper, 1996, p.224-225) In our view, the approach has an additional virtue. By examining the history of forms and meanings, through a kind of etymology of notions, it allows us to appreciate more intensely the polysemy of language, for literary or generally creative purposes. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UQIf!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4485a1a5-7afa-496d-9b35-2bc0848230c2_800x1032.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UQIf!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4485a1a5-7afa-496d-9b35-2bc0848230c2_800x1032.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UQIf!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4485a1a5-7afa-496d-9b35-2bc0848230c2_800x1032.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UQIf!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4485a1a5-7afa-496d-9b35-2bc0848230c2_800x1032.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UQIf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4485a1a5-7afa-496d-9b35-2bc0848230c2_800x1032.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UQIf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4485a1a5-7afa-496d-9b35-2bc0848230c2_800x1032.jpeg" width="472" height="608.88" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/4485a1a5-7afa-496d-9b35-2bc0848230c2_800x1032.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1032,&quot;width&quot;:800,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:472,&quot;bytes&quot;:148201,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" title="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UQIf!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4485a1a5-7afa-496d-9b35-2bc0848230c2_800x1032.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UQIf!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4485a1a5-7afa-496d-9b35-2bc0848230c2_800x1032.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UQIf!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4485a1a5-7afa-496d-9b35-2bc0848230c2_800x1032.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UQIf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4485a1a5-7afa-496d-9b35-2bc0848230c2_800x1032.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">W. Heath Robinson, illustration for Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, 1914</figcaption></figure></div><p>When meditating on English modal verbs, we have already come across one of the frequent <em>mechanisms</em> on the path to grammaticalization, regardless of the notion at stake - namely, <em>morphological reduction. </em>In Present-day English, the agreement of the modal auxiliary has lost its similarity to that of ordinary verbs. In Shakespeare, we still read<em> </em></p><p><em>Obe. That very time I saw, but <strong>thou</strong> <strong>couldst </strong>not,<br>Flying between the cold moon and the earth,<br>Cupid all arm'd </em></p><p>where the modal auxiliary shares the second-person singular (<em>thou</em>) marker (<em>-st</em>) then carried by all verbs. </p><p>In his systematic compilation, Hopper (1996, p.223-225) summarizes seven further mechanisms, as highlighted by Heine &amp; Reh (1984):<em> </em></p><ol><li><p>Loss in<em> &#8220;in semantic complexity, functional significance, and/or expressive value&#8221;</em>. Some say <em>semantic bleaching</em>, and we have taken a long look at how the meanings of <em>to will </em>fade.</p></li><li><p><em> </em>Loss in <em>&#8220;pragmatic and [gain] in syntactic significance&#8221;.</em> For illustration, the phrase<em> the fact that </em>traditionally requires the subsequent clause to be true (pragmatically, it is a <em>fact</em>). Recently, this condition seems to be weakening, for example in <em>My opponent has charged me with the fact that I used illegal campaign funds. </em></p></li><li><p>Reduction in the <em>&#8220;number of members belonging to the same morphosyntactic paradigm&#8221;</em>. French negation could resort to numerous reinforcers, of which only <em>pas</em>, and more archaically, <em>point</em>, remain. </p></li><li><p>Decrease in <em>&#8220;syntactic variability&#8221;</em>, that is, <em>&#8220;position in the clause becomes fixed&#8221;</em>. For example, full flexibility in word order for a Latin sentence, less so for its descendant in Old and Middle French, and none at all for the French equivalent.</p></li><li><p>Increase in &#8220;<em>obligatory [character] in some contexts and ungrammatical [character] in others&#8221;. </em>Tense, aspect and modality are difficult to express without auxiliaries and conjugation tables. The periphrastic bypass, for example <em>be able to </em>for <em>can</em>, supplies the modal verb's defective forms (namely <em>untensed forms</em>: plain verb form, <em>*I will </em>can<em> come</em>, to-infinitive, <em>*to can</em>, and gerund-participle, <em>*canning</em>) and can therefore be seen as quasi-modal.</p></li><li><p>Semantic, morphosyntactic, and phonetic coalescence with other units. In English, <em>I am going to take the morning flight to Uppsala</em> becomes in some registers <em>I&#8217;m gonna take&#8230; </em>or even <em>I ma take&#8230;</em></p></li><li><p>Loss in <em>&#8220;phonetic substance&#8221;</em>. (Phonetic erosion applies to the linguistic item itself, not to its coalescence (6) with other units.) For instance, the Old English negator <em>n&#225; wiht</em> (to be compared with the modern <em>no way</em>) follows the path <em>n&#225; wiht &gt; n&#243;wiht </em>or <em>n&#243;wuht &gt; noght &gt; n&#8217;t</em>. </p></li></ol><div><hr></div><p>We have become acquainted with grammaticalization as a linguistic process that gradually metamorphoses lexical items into grammatical ones, following established pathways of language evolution. We have, by way of illustration, visited modal verbs from Old to Modern English, and evoked the frequent intermingling of the expression of tense and modality. The future tense auxiliary <em>will</em>, in particular, bears also modal nuances. It has been grammaticalized as a future tense marker by analogy with its predecessor's lexical meaning - <em>intention</em> and <em>willingness</em>.</p><p>Another typical pathway in the grammaticalization of the future tense originates from verbs of <em>movement</em>. <a href="https://oldnorse.substack.com/p/future-and-movement-2">Its unfolding across several languages and continents is the focus of the second part of this essay</a>. </p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share Old Norse Linguist&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share"><span>Share Old Norse Linguist</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p><em>References</em></p><p>Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., &amp; Svartvik, J. (1985). <em>A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language.</em> London: Longman.</p><p>Views on grammaticalization. In Grammaticalization. Wikipedia. Retrieved January 18, 2025, from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammaticalization#Views_on_grammaticalization">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammaticalization#Views_on_grammaticalization</a></p><p>Kury&#322;owicz, J. (1965). <em>The Evolution of Grammatical Categories</em>. Diogenes, 13(51), 55-71. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/039219216501305105">https://doi.org/10.1177/039219216501305105</a></p><p>Matisoff, J. A. (1991). <em>Areal and universal dimensions of grammaticalization in Lahu. </em>In E. C. Traugott &amp; B. Heine (Eds.), Approaches to Grammaticalization.</p><p>Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved January 18, 2025, from <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com">https://www.merriam-webster.com</a></p><p>Heine B, Reh M. (1984). <em>Grammaticalization and Reanalysis in African Languages</em>. Hamburg: Buske</p><p><br><br></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Honum þótti]]></title><description><![CDATA[Let's carry on reading &#205;slendingab&#243;k. Chapter 1 tells us about the early colonization of Iceland from Norway. Our latest extensive reading effort has informed us about the time, pioneer and places of this settlement - &#8220;when Harald Fair-hair was sixteen winters old&#8221;, a Norwegian, a man called Ingolf, &#8220;settled south in Reykjavik&#8221; and two nearby places, &#8220;Ingolf's Headland east of Minthak's Eyri&#8221; and &#8220;Ingolf's Mountain west of Olfus River&#8221;, were named after him. Iceland was then covered in woods. The Norwegians were not, in truth, the very first ones. There were Irish people there, as evidenced by the books and objects they left behind: they departed because they did not like living among pagans.]]></description><link>https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/grammar-by-islendingabok-3-honum</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/grammar-by-islendingabok-3-honum</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Galois]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Mon, 20 Jan 2025 14:42:44 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yj57!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3f21b566-306a-4a05-be60-86f2713f31a1_4080x3060.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Let's carry on reading <em><strong>&#205;slendingab&#243;k</strong></em>. Chapter 1 tells us about the early colonization of Iceland from Norway. <a href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/islendingabok-4">Our latest extensive reading effort</a> has informed us about the time, pioneer and places of this settlement - <em>&#8220;when Harald Fair-hair was sixteen winters old&#8221;</em>, a Norwegian, a man called Ingolf, <em>&#8220;settled south in Reykjavik&#8221;</em> and two nearby places, <em>&#8220;Ingolf's Headland east of Minthak's Eyri&#8221;</em> and <em>&#8220;Ingolf's Mountain west of Olfus River&#8221;</em>, were named after him. Iceland was then covered in woods. The Norwegians were not, in truth, the very first ones. There were Irish people there, as evidenced by the books and objects they left behind: they departed because they did not like living among pagans.   </p><p>The present essay aims once again at extrapolating some grammatical truths from the intensive reading of a short text. We shall consider the following sentence. </p><blockquote><p><em>En &#254;&#225; var&#240; f&#491;r manna mikil mj&#491;k &#250;t hingat &#243;r Norvegi, til &#254;ess unz konungrinn Haraldr banna&#240;i, af &#254;v&#237; at honum &#254;&#243;tti landau&#240;n nema. </em></p></blockquote><p>Norwegian royalty fears demographic hemorrhage.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yj57!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3f21b566-306a-4a05-be60-86f2713f31a1_4080x3060.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yj57!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3f21b566-306a-4a05-be60-86f2713f31a1_4080x3060.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yj57!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3f21b566-306a-4a05-be60-86f2713f31a1_4080x3060.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yj57!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3f21b566-306a-4a05-be60-86f2713f31a1_4080x3060.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yj57!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3f21b566-306a-4a05-be60-86f2713f31a1_4080x3060.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yj57!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3f21b566-306a-4a05-be60-86f2713f31a1_4080x3060.jpeg" width="1456" height="1092" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/3f21b566-306a-4a05-be60-86f2713f31a1_4080x3060.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1092,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:2924077,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/i/154675115?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3f21b566-306a-4a05-be60-86f2713f31a1_4080x3060.jpeg&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yj57!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3f21b566-306a-4a05-be60-86f2713f31a1_4080x3060.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yj57!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3f21b566-306a-4a05-be60-86f2713f31a1_4080x3060.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yj57!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3f21b566-306a-4a05-be60-86f2713f31a1_4080x3060.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yj57!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3f21b566-306a-4a05-be60-86f2713f31a1_4080x3060.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Ersfjordbotn, Troms&#248;, Norway</figcaption></figure></div><p> <em>&#8220;Then there was a very great migration of people out here from Norway, until King Harald forbade it, because he thought the land was becoming depopulated.&#8221;</em></p><p>The grammatical mysteries to be solved are many, and we shall focus now on the intriguing ending.</p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>We highlight the last clause</p><p><em>En &#254;&#225; var&#240; f&#491;r manna mikil mj&#491;k &#250;t hingat &#243;r Norvegi, til &#254;ess unz konungrinn Haraldr banna&#240;i, <strong>af &#254;v&#237; at honum &#254;&#243;tti landau&#240;n nema</strong>. </em></p><p>that we translated earlier as</p><p><em>&#8220;&#8230;, because he thought the land was becoming depopulated.&#8221;</em></p><p>Here, we cannot short-circuit the entire grammatical analysis; it will lead us to the point we want to emphasize. We already met <em>af &#254;v&#237; at</em> earlier, a compound subordinating conjunction, <em>subordinating</em> because it introduces the highlighted clause, subordinate to the principal. If we unpack it, we find a prepositional phrase, <em>af &#254;v&#237;, </em>where <em>&#254;v&#237;</em> the singular neuter dative of the demonstrative pronoun. We are not surprised by the dative, called by the preposition <em>at</em>, which itself means <em>from, out of, because of. </em>We then find <em>at</em>, which can also function independently as a subordinating conjunction, often to be translated by <em>that</em>. Putting it all together, it gives literally <em>&#8220;from this, that&#8221; </em>or<em> &#8220;because of this, that&#8221;. </em></p><p>Our demonstrative pronoun<em> &#254;v&#237;</em> acts as a <em>cataphoric reference </em>here: it points forward to the &#8220;gist&#8221; or &#8220;content&#8221; of the causal adverbial clause the compound subordinating conjunction introduces, i.e. <em>&#8220;he thought the land was&#8230;&#8221;. </em>We might just as well paraphrase as <em>&#8220;because of the fact, that...&#8221; </em>What is the grammatical function of <em>that</em> here? We might be inclined to think of it as a <em>relativizer</em>, a relative pronoun referring to the substantive <em>fact</em>. This cannot be the case, however, since the clause it introduces is no <em>relative clause</em>, insofar as it does not <em>modifies</em> a noun phrase: it does not <em>further characterize</em> the substantive <em> fact</em>, so the latter could exist without the <em>that-clause</em>. Compare with a nominal phrase featuring a relative proposition: <em>&#8220;the cat that sleeps on the mat&#8221;</em>. Here,<em> &#8220;that sleeps on the mat&#8221; </em>characterizes <em>&#8220;the cat&#8221;</em>. The full sentence</p><p><em>I can see the cat that sleeps on the mat.</em></p><p>can perfectly survive without the relative clause:</p><p><em>I can see the cat.  </em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdjy!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30671132-3cdc-416d-a6e0-64b4387d2f2c_569x600.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdjy!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30671132-3cdc-416d-a6e0-64b4387d2f2c_569x600.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdjy!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30671132-3cdc-416d-a6e0-64b4387d2f2c_569x600.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdjy!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30671132-3cdc-416d-a6e0-64b4387d2f2c_569x600.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdjy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30671132-3cdc-416d-a6e0-64b4387d2f2c_569x600.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdjy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30671132-3cdc-416d-a6e0-64b4387d2f2c_569x600.jpeg" width="533" height="562.0386643233743" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/30671132-3cdc-416d-a6e0-64b4387d2f2c_569x600.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:600,&quot;width&quot;:569,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:533,&quot;bytes&quot;:201608,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdjy!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30671132-3cdc-416d-a6e0-64b4387d2f2c_569x600.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdjy!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30671132-3cdc-416d-a6e0-64b4387d2f2c_569x600.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdjy!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30671132-3cdc-416d-a6e0-64b4387d2f2c_569x600.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdjy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30671132-3cdc-416d-a6e0-64b4387d2f2c_569x600.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">H.J. Ford and Lancelot Speed, illustration from "The Story of Sigurd" in The Red Fairy Book, Longmans, Green, and Co., 1890</figcaption></figure></div><p>It is of course not the case with <em>fact</em> in our slightly rephrased clause from <em>&#205;slendingab&#243;k</em></p><p><em>&#8220;&#8230;, because of the fact <strong>that</strong> he thought the land was becoming depopulated.&#8221;</em></p><p>since </p><p><em>&#8220;&#8230;, because of the fact.&#8221; </em></p><p>alone is meaningless. We lack the <em>content</em> of the fact, what the fact actually <em>is</em>. The clause <em>&#8220;that he thought the land was becoming depopulated&#8221; </em>is too essential to be a relative. It is a so-called <em>content clause</em>, or <em>dependent clause</em>, i.e., providing the content that is implied or commented upon by the main clause. </p><p>Let's illustrate with further examples where <em>that</em> is no <em>relativizer</em>, but a <em>complementizer</em>, a subordinating conjunction introducing a <em>content clause</em>. In the following sentences</p><p><em>He believes that global warming is not happening.</em> </p><p><em>She is delighted that John got fired.</em></p><p><em>They wished that the forest fire had been stamped out earlier. </em></p><p>the that-clause <em>functions</em> clearly as a direct object to the verbal forms, respectively <em>believes</em>, <em>wished </em>and <em>is delighted</em>. We can rephrase slightly: in these reformulations, the that-clause <em>logically</em> represents what exactly the subject is, what it implies, its content.  </p><p><em>What he believes is that global warming is not happening. (What he believes = that global warming is not happening)</em></p><p><em>What she is delighted of is that John got fired. (What she is delighted of = that John got fired)</em></p><p><em>What they wished is that the forest fire had been stamped out earlier. (What they wished = that the forest fire had been stamped out earlier)</em></p><p>In the syntax of those reformulations, the that-clause <em>functions</em> as a <em>nominative predicative</em>, or <em>subject complement</em>, in exactly the same way as <em>&#8220;a lone wolf&#8221;</em> in &#8220;<em>John is a lone wolf.&#8221;</em>. </p><p>In contrast, for our <em>&#8220;cat that sleeps on the mat&#8221;, &#8220;that sleeps on the mat&#8221; </em>is not the content of the <em>&#8220;cat&#8221;. </em>It just adds a bit more information about it. The same cat can lead a peaceful existence on the sofa or in the kitchen.</p><p>So far, our content clauses complete verbs of cognition (<em>to believe, to wish)</em>. They can also complete verbs of reporting (<em>to tell</em>) or perception (<em>to hear</em>). They can also very well complement noun phrases, as in </p><p><em>the idea that the Earth is flat&#8230; </em></p><p>which in fact we can be rephrased awkwardly for the sake of making a verb (of cognition) appear</p><p><em>what one thinks, that the Earth is flat&#8230; </em>or<em> what one has an idea of, that the Earth is flat&#8230;</em></p><p>Just like earlier, <em>&#8220;that the Earth is flat&#8221; </em>is exactly (the content of)<em> &#8220;what one thinks&#8221;</em>. Back to our <em>&#205;slendingab&#243;k</em>, in</p><p><em>&#8220;&#8230;, because of the fact that he thought the land was becoming depopulated.&#8221;</em></p><p>the that-clause now appears clearly as a dependent clause making explicit the content of<em> the fact</em>, of <em>&#254;v&#237; </em>in <em>af &#254;v&#237; at. </em>But why bother? Well, in <em>&#8220;the cat that sleeps on the mat&#8221;</em>, &#8220;<em>the cat&#8221;</em> is the logical subject to <em>&#8220;sleeps on the mat&#8221;. </em>In<em> </em></p><p><em>&#8230;, af &#254;v&#237; at honum &#254;&#243;tti landau&#240;n nema.</em></p><p><em>&#254;v&#237; </em>is no logical subject to <em>&#8220;at honum &#254;&#243;tti landau&#240;n nema&#8221; </em>- and in fact <em>&#8220;at honum &#254;&#243;tti landau&#240;n nema&#8221; </em>has no logical subject in the Old Norse sentence.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rCOE!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd33c3067-9e9e-4317-ae86-d837a4bf5490_522x569.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rCOE!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd33c3067-9e9e-4317-ae86-d837a4bf5490_522x569.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rCOE!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd33c3067-9e9e-4317-ae86-d837a4bf5490_522x569.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rCOE!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd33c3067-9e9e-4317-ae86-d837a4bf5490_522x569.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rCOE!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd33c3067-9e9e-4317-ae86-d837a4bf5490_522x569.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rCOE!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd33c3067-9e9e-4317-ae86-d837a4bf5490_522x569.png" width="470" height="512.3180076628353" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d33c3067-9e9e-4317-ae86-d837a4bf5490_522x569.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:569,&quot;width&quot;:522,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:470,&quot;bytes&quot;:800881,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rCOE!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd33c3067-9e9e-4317-ae86-d837a4bf5490_522x569.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rCOE!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd33c3067-9e9e-4317-ae86-d837a4bf5490_522x569.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rCOE!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd33c3067-9e9e-4317-ae86-d837a4bf5490_522x569.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rCOE!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd33c3067-9e9e-4317-ae86-d837a4bf5490_522x569.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Workshop of Alsace 1418, "Combat between Dietrich and Siegfried," illustration from The Rose Garden, Cod. Pal. germ. 359, Heidelberg University Library, 1420</figcaption></figure></div><p>Let's digress briefly to the virtues of grammar, a matter we shall explore at greater length later on. Jargon, in this instance, is less important than the logic at work. The former is contingent on the grammatical theory to which we refer, and as in any academic discipline, debates, opposing models and grand ideas abound. Rather, the aim is to grasp the overall articulation of a language, and the system of rules governing it. In this way, the concepts of <em>relativizer</em>, <em>complementizer</em> or <em>content clause </em>are mainly manipulated by modern approaches to grammar, such as <em>generative grammar</em> which builds on assumptions we shall come back to. You may not remember them from early school days. A more traditional approach would have said<em> relative pronoun</em> or <em>subordinating conjunction</em>. Nevertheless, the relative pronoun is also, in its own way, a subordinating conjunction, so the <em>relativizer-complementizer</em> distinction seems a sensible way of capturing a nuance in usage. </p><p>Accurately mapping the grammatical structure of a sentence is the catalyst for accurate translation and comprehension. Ideally, grammatical analysis should become second nature. This is particularly true for a language with such a rich inflectional system as Old Norse. As we discussed <a href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/islendingabok">much earlier</a>, considerable variation in word order is allowed, since the grammatical function of words is already marked by case endings: rigidly assigning a place in the sentence to each function becomes redundant with form. Anglophone reflexes for parsing sentences, for spotting subject, verb, complement do not hold up.</p><p>As far as we are concerned, knowing that our subordinating conjunction does not act as a <em>relativizer</em>, and in particular does not refer to a logical subject to what follows, is important for grasping the first notion of grammar that interests us today.</p><div><hr></div><p>Haugen talks about verb frames. (Haugen, 2015, p.132)</p><blockquote><p><em>Verbrammene fortel kor mange nominale ledd verbet knyter til seg, dvs. subjekt og objekt (som det kan v&#230;re flere av). </em></p></blockquote><p><em>&#8220;Verb frames tell you how many nominal clauses the verb attaches to itself, i.e. subject and object (of which there may be several).&#8221;</em></p><p>We are interested in <em><strong>&#254;&#243;tti</strong> </em>in</p><p><em>&#8230;, af &#254;v&#237; at h&#243;num &#254;&#243;tti landau&#240;n nema.</em></p><p>It is the third-person singular past indicative of <em><strong>&#254;ykkja</strong></em> (<em>to think</em>). By all means regular, a <a href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/weak-verbs-strong-verbs">weak verb of the </a><em><a href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/weak-verbs-strong-verbs">telja-class</a></em>. As we have discussed at length, and paradoxically, our Old Norse verb <em>thought</em> has no logical subject. Its verb frame is <em><strong>Verb+Dative</strong></em> according to Haugen&#8217;s typology. Our dative here is <em><strong>h&#243;num</strong></em>, the dative singular masculine form of the third person personal pronoun <em>hann</em> (<em>he</em>). The dative is typically the case of the indirect object. Such that &#8220;<em>h&#243;num &#254;&#243;tti&#8221;</em> equates closely to the broken English <em>&#8220;*it thought to him&#8221;, </em>or closer to correctness <em>&#8220;it seemed to him&#8221;</em>. <em>&#8220;The thought came to him, that&#8230;&#8221;</em>. </p><blockquote><p><em>Verbalet tek eit objekt i dativ, men ikkje noko subjekt. </em></p></blockquote><p><em>&#8220;The verb takes an object in the dative, but not a subject.&#8221;</em></p><p>A number of verbs fall into this category, Haugen tells us: <em><a href="https://cleasby-vigfusson-dictionary.vercel.app/word/hitna">hitna</a></em> (<em>to become hot</em>), <em><a href="https://cleasby-vigfusson-dictionary.vercel.app/word/lika-2">lika</a></em> (<em>to like</em>), <em><a href="https://cleasby-vigfusson-dictionary.vercel.app/word/litask">litask</a></em> (<em>to look about</em>), <em><a href="https://cleasby-vigfusson-dictionary.vercel.app/word/svala">svala</a></em> (<em>to cool</em>), <em><a href="https://cleasby-vigfusson-dictionary.vercel.app/word/syna">s&#253;nask</a></em> (<em>to appear</em>), <a href="https://cleasby-vigfusson-dictionary.vercel.app/word/versna">versna</a> (<em>to worsen</em>), and our verb of main interest, <em>&#254;ykkja </em>(<em>to think</em>).</p><p>In Norwegian Bokm&#229;l, the impersonal construct with dative experiencer is replaced is those instances by a personal construct with (nominative) explicit subject. In particular, our impersonal turn <em>&#8220;h&#243;num &#254;&#243;tti&#8221; </em>is well rendered by<em> &#8220;han <strong>syntes</strong>&#8221;, </em>that English can translate into <em>&#8220;he feels&#8221;</em>,<em> &#8220;he thinks&#8221;</em>, or (making our dative reappear) <em>&#8220;it seems to him&#8221;. </em>Nevertheless, there is something special about the verb <em>&#229; synes</em>. A <em>deponent</em> verb, it is a passive form with an active meaning, an exemplar of the famous Norwegian <em>-s passive</em>. We therefore still have a memory of the ancient passive. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3XOx!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc037bc7c-131c-4090-a7d9-53c8786dd268_1024x1246.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3XOx!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc037bc7c-131c-4090-a7d9-53c8786dd268_1024x1246.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3XOx!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc037bc7c-131c-4090-a7d9-53c8786dd268_1024x1246.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3XOx!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc037bc7c-131c-4090-a7d9-53c8786dd268_1024x1246.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3XOx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc037bc7c-131c-4090-a7d9-53c8786dd268_1024x1246.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3XOx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc037bc7c-131c-4090-a7d9-53c8786dd268_1024x1246.jpeg" width="528" height="642.46875" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c037bc7c-131c-4090-a7d9-53c8786dd268_1024x1246.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1246,&quot;width&quot;:1024,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:528,&quot;bytes&quot;:446970,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3XOx!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc037bc7c-131c-4090-a7d9-53c8786dd268_1024x1246.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3XOx!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc037bc7c-131c-4090-a7d9-53c8786dd268_1024x1246.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3XOx!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc037bc7c-131c-4090-a7d9-53c8786dd268_1024x1246.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3XOx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc037bc7c-131c-4090-a7d9-53c8786dd268_1024x1246.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Wilhelm von Kaulbach, "Siegfried catches the stag that wears a crown," illustration from The heroic life and exploits of Siegfried the Dragon Slayer, 1848</figcaption></figure></div><p>In fact, <em>&#229; synes </em>derives naturally from Old Norse <em><strong>s&#253;nask</strong></em>, which we have just listed among the subjectless verbs with dative. Why translate <em>&#254;ykkja</em> into Norwegian Bokm&#229;l by means of a descendant of <em>s&#253;nask</em>? Well, Norwegian Bokm&#229;l does not record, it seems, any descendants of <em>&#254;ykkja</em>. Instead, its presumed Proto-Germanic ancestor, <em>*&#254;unkijan&#261;</em>, produced a West-Proto-Germanic cousin from whom the Shakespearean <em>methinks</em> descends. </p><p><em>&#8220;The lady doth protest too much, <strong>methinks</strong>.&#8221; (Hamlet)</em></p><p><em>&#8220;Another moon; but O! <strong>methinks</strong> how slow<br>This old moon wanes&#8221; (A Midsummer Night's Dream)</em></p><p><em>&#8220;<strong>Methinks</strong> I have<br>a great desire to a bottle of hay: good hay, sweet<br>hay, hath no fellow.&#8221; (A Midsummer Night's Dream)</em></p><p>Today an archaism, <em>methinks</em> interests us as an English vestige of this impersonal form plus dative. <em>Methinks</em> is better rendered by <em>&#8220;it seems to me&#8221;</em>, <em>&#8220;it occurs to me&#8221;</em>, than the simple <em>&#8220;I think&#8221;</em>, a slight nuance of a passive. <em>Me- </em>is the trace of the old dative, while the third person singular form with its<em> -s</em> ending is clearly impersonal. while the third person singular marked by the <em>-s </em>ending<em> </em>in absence of subject denotes the impersonal form. Modern German also has its archaic descendant, <em><a href="https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/duenken">d&#252;nken</a></em>, which the <em>Duden</em> dictionary explains as <em>&#8220;jemandem so vorkommen, scheinen&#8221;</em>, quite literally <em>&#8220;to seem/appear to someone&#8221;</em>. <em>Vorkommen</em> in particular renders the passive character: thoughts or impressions come (<em>kommen</em>) to someone. Here, the experiencer is in the dative or, more frequently, in the accusative, the case of the direct object.<em> &#8220;Mich d&#252;nkt&#8221;</em>, where the accusative can be rendered by (the incorrect) <em>&#8220;*it seems me&#8221;</em>, while a dative-like construct is more natural to English, <em>&#8220;it seems to me&#8221;</em>.</p><div><hr></div><p>Now let's look at the end of our clause, which falls under what Haugen calls <em><strong>omformingar</strong></em> (<em><strong>reformulation</strong></em>), more precisely in the <em>sm&#229;setningar</em> (<em>short sentences</em>) and, further, the <em>nominativ med infinitiv</em> (<em>nominatif with infinitive</em>) categories. (Haugen, 2015, p.153)</p><p><em>&#8230;, af &#254;v&#237; at h&#243;num &#254;&#243;tti <strong>landau&#240;n nema</strong>.</em></p><p><em><strong>landau&#240;n </strong></em>is our nominative, i.e., subject case. It is a feminine substantive composed of the substantives <em>land</em> (<em>land</em>) and <em><a href="https://cleasby-vigfusson-dictionary.vercel.app/word/audn">au&#240;n</a> </em>(<em>wilderness, desert</em>). The whole is given by <a href="https://cleasby-vigfusson-dictionary.vercel.app/word/land-audn">The Cleasby &amp; Vigfusson Dictionary</a> the English equivalent <em>&#8220;laying a land</em> (<em>country</em>) <em>waste&#8221;</em>, in other words, <em>depopulation</em>. <em><strong>nema</strong></em> is our infinitive, of a strong verb, meaning <em>to take </em>as the Old English <em>niman</em> (still alive in <em>numb</em> or <em>nim</em>) was superseded by the Scandinavian <em>taka.</em> (In modern Scandinavian we have the Norwegian Nynorsk <em>taka</em>, the Swedish <em>taga</em>, or the Danish <em>tage</em>). The meaning of <em>nema</em> is rarely limited to the literal, and <em>to take</em> sets solely the big orientation. <em>To take away</em>, <em>to bereave of something</em>. <em>To take by force</em>, <em>to seize upon. </em>Accompanied by<em> vi&#240;</em>, <em>to strike against so as to stop, to come no further. To reach</em>,<em> to touch</em>.<em> To stop. </em>With <em>sta&#240;ar</em>, <em>to take place</em>. Cognitively, <em>to take</em> in a mental sense or by the senses, <em>to perceive,</em> just like the Latin <em>apprehendere</em>, thereby also, <em>to learn. </em>But luckily the same <a href="https://cleasby-vigfusson-dictionary.vercel.app/word/nema">Cleasby &amp; Vigfusson Dictionary</a>, always rich in literary examples taken from the sagas, mentions our passage from <em>&#205;slendingab&#243;k</em>. Entry <em><strong>nema</strong></em> 2.A.6:</p><blockquote><p>6. <em>to amount to, be equivalent to;</em> ef eigi nemr k&#250;gildi, Gr&#225;g. ii. 233; <strong>honum &#254;&#243;tti landau&#240;n nema</strong>, &#205;b. 4; &#254;a&#240; nemr &#246;ngu, litlu, miklu, <em>it is of no, of small, of great importance;</em> br&#237;kr &#254;&#230;r er greyping hefir numit, G&#254;l. 345.</p></blockquote><p>Our infinitive group takes on its meaning: <em>to amount to depopulation</em>, <em>to take the level of depopulation</em>. Or a maybe more natural expression, <em>to become depopulated</em>. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cKbU!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1cfdcfc7-9e8f-46eb-b4e7-a68458e09360_4080x3060.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cKbU!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1cfdcfc7-9e8f-46eb-b4e7-a68458e09360_4080x3060.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cKbU!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1cfdcfc7-9e8f-46eb-b4e7-a68458e09360_4080x3060.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cKbU!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1cfdcfc7-9e8f-46eb-b4e7-a68458e09360_4080x3060.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cKbU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1cfdcfc7-9e8f-46eb-b4e7-a68458e09360_4080x3060.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cKbU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1cfdcfc7-9e8f-46eb-b4e7-a68458e09360_4080x3060.jpeg" width="1456" height="1092" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/1cfdcfc7-9e8f-46eb-b4e7-a68458e09360_4080x3060.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1092,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:3181661,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/i/154675115?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1cfdcfc7-9e8f-46eb-b4e7-a68458e09360_4080x3060.jpeg&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cKbU!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1cfdcfc7-9e8f-46eb-b4e7-a68458e09360_4080x3060.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cKbU!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1cfdcfc7-9e8f-46eb-b4e7-a68458e09360_4080x3060.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cKbU!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1cfdcfc7-9e8f-46eb-b4e7-a68458e09360_4080x3060.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cKbU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1cfdcfc7-9e8f-46eb-b4e7-a68458e09360_4080x3060.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Ersfjordbotn, Troms&#248;, Norway</figcaption></figure></div><p>Within the <em>short sentences</em> category, the <em>nominativ med infinitiv</em> configuration is far less common than its twin, the <em>akkusativ med infinitiv</em>. In both cases, it is the <em>reformulation</em> of a subordinate proposition (with a <em>finite</em>, i.e. conjugated, verb) into an infinitive proposition when brought up into the main proposition. The grammatical subject of the subordinate clause before reformulation is switched to the accusative in one case, kept in the nominative in the other. The nominative-preserving construction occurs, Haugen tells us, solely with the verbs <em><strong>s&#253;nask</strong></em> and <em><strong>&#254;ykkja</strong></em>, which we now know well. It is precisely their natural construction without grammatical subject, and with experiencer in the <em>dative (&#8220;<strong>h&#243;num</strong> &#254;&#243;tti&#8221;)</em>, that governs the nominative (<em>&#8220;<strong>landau&#240;n </strong>nema&#8221;</em>) of their subordinate's reformulation. Haugen indeed says:</p><blockquote><p><em>Ettersom det ikkje er noko subject i nominativ i samband med slike verb, vil eit subject i ei underliggjande setning bli st&#229;ande uendra i nominativ dersom den underliggjande setninga blir l&#248;fta opp i den overordna setninga. </em></p></blockquote><p><em>&#8220;Since there is no subject in the nominative case accompanying such verbs </em>[<em>s&#253;nask</em> and <em>&#254;ykkja</em>]<em>, the subject of a dependent clause will remain unchanged in the nominative case if the latter is lifted up into the main clause.&#8221;</em></p><p>The &#8220;place of the nominative&#8221; is free in the sentence's inflectional organization, so the transformation needs not resort to the accusative. </p><p>Let's take a closer look at the transformation in question. The arrival point is the clause</p><p><em>&#8230;, af &#254;v&#237; at h&#243;num &#254;&#243;tti <strong>landau&#240;n nema</strong>.</em></p><p>which very literally (improperly) translates into </p><p>*&#8230;, <em>because he thought the land to become depopulated.</em></p><p>This is improper in English, since the verb <em>to think</em>, in its <a href="https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/think_1?q=think">first meaning</a>,<em> &#8220;to have a particular idea or opinion about something/somebody; to believe something&#8221; </em>(<em>Oxford Learner&#8217;s dictionary</em>)<em>, </em>requires a verbal direct object to be a <em>that-clause</em> with finite verb. (We can have <em>He thinks to change the tire.</em> expressing intention, or the passive construct <em>They are thought to have exceeded the speed limit.</em>)</p><p>We can correct our literal translation into</p><p>&#8230;, <em>because he thought the land <strong>was becoming</strong> depopulated.</em></p><p>making the that-clause obvious. It is the Old Norse equivalent of this that-clause that is the starting point of the <em>transformation-according-to-Haugen</em>. <em>Nema</em> is conjugated in the third person singular (in agreement with <em>landau&#240;n</em>) past indicative, <em><strong>nam</strong></em>. We have already the nominative <em>landau&#240;n</em>, which the transformation is to leave unchanged. </p><p>Here is our transformation at work.</p><p><em>(at)</em> <em>landau&#240;n nam (that the land was becoming depopulated) &#8594;landau&#240;n nema</em></p><p>We shall come back more systematically to the two types of reformulation, <em>accusativ med infinitiv</em> and <em>nominativ med infinitiv </em>in further creative pieces. Yet, let us note here that these have numerous equivalents in the broad Germanic spectrum, and elsewhere. The English <em>to think</em> admits no direct infinitive complement, but consider <em>to wish</em> or <em>to expect</em>. </p><p><em>He <strong>wished</strong> <strong>that</strong> the land <strong>would become </strong>depopulated.&#8594;He <strong>wished</strong> the land <strong>to become</strong> depopulated.</em></p><p><em>She <strong>expected</strong> <strong>that</strong> the bus <strong>would depart</strong> earlier.&#8594;She <strong>expected</strong> the bus <strong>to depart</strong> earlier. </em></p><p>Or more Shakespearean.</p><p><em>Ros. She <strong>desires</strong> <strong>to speak</strong> with you in her<br>closet ere you go to bed. (The Tragedy of Hamlet) </em></p><p>German has<em> infinitive sentences (<strong>Infinitivs&#228;tze</strong>)</em>, which can take on subject or complement functions, whose infinitive is accompanied by <em>zu</em> and lacks a subject. </p><p><em>Er <strong>behauptet</strong>, die Beh&#246;rden auf die Untat aufmerksam <strong>gemacht</strong> <strong>zu haben</strong>. (He claims to have alerted the authorities to the outrage.) </em></p><p>The logical subject of the infinitive is the (non repeated) one of the principal, <em>er</em>, i.e. <em>he</em>. The case of <em>&#8220;die Beh&#246;rden&#8221;</em> (<em>the authorities</em>) is the accusative, direct object to our past infinitive <em>&#8220;gemacht (zu) haben&#8221;</em>. It reformulates the following (uncommon) sentence where <em>dass</em> is the subordinating conjunction (<em>that</em>)</p><p><em>Er <strong>behauptet</strong>, <strong>dass</strong> er die Beh&#246;rden auf die Untat aufmerksam <strong>gemacht</strong> <strong>hat</strong>. (</em>literally,<em> He claims that he has alerted the authorities to the outrage.) </em></p><p>And the Norwegian structure is not far off at all. </p><p><em>Han <strong>hevder</strong> <strong>&#229; ha gjort</strong> myndighetene oppmerksom p&#229; overtredelsen. (He claims to have alerted the authorities to the outrage.)</em></p><p>In German or Norwegian, a verb of perception, such as <em>to see</em> or <em>to hear</em>, is followed by a bare infinitive (without <em>&#229;</em> or <em>zu</em> respectively). </p><p><em>Jeg kan <strong>h&#248;re</strong> toget <strong>komme</strong> i det fjerne. (I can hear the train coming in the distance.)</em></p><p><em>Ich <strong>h&#246;re</strong> den Zug in der Ferne <strong>kommen</strong>. (I can hear the train coming in the distance.)</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/grammar-by-islendingabok-3-honum?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.oldnorselinguist.com/p/grammar-by-islendingabok-3-honum?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share"><span>Share</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>We spoke a little<em> Nynorsk</em> (literally, <em>New Norwegian</em>) through Haugen's grammar, which was written in that language. We shall soon explore the origins of Norway's two official languages, <em>Norwegian</em> <em>Bokm&#229;l</em> and <em>Nynorsk</em>, compare their distinctive characteristics, and examine their place in the North Germanic spectrum.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>References</em></p><p>Haugen, O. E. (2015). <em>Norr&#248;n grammatikk i hovuddrag</em>. Novus.</p><p>Cleasby, Richard &amp; Gudbrand Vigfusson. "nema." An Icelandic-English Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1874. <a href="https://cleasby-vigfusson-dictionary.vercel.app/word/nema">https://cleasby-vigfusson-dictionary.vercel.app/word/nema</a><br></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item></channel></rss>